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# Wikipedia
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**Source:** https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concatenative_programming_language
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Concatenative programming language - Wikipedia
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## Contents
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* [(Top)](#)
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* [1
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Example](#Example)
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* [2
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Properties](#Properties)
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* [3
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Implementations](#Implementations)
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* [4
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See also](#See_also)
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* [5
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References](#References)
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* [6
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External links](#External_links)
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Toggle the table of contents
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# Concatenative programming language
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5 languages
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* [Português](https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguagem_de_programa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_concatenativa "Linguagem de programação concatenativa – Portuguese")
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* [Русский](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F "Конкатенативный язык программирования – Russian")
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* [Српски / srpski](https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA "Конкатенативни програмски језик – Serbian")
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* [Українська](https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F "Конкатенативна мова програмування – Ukrainian")
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* [中文](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%B2%E6%8E%A5%E5%BC%8F%E7%BC%96%E7%A8%8B%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80 "串接式编程语言 – Chinese")
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Type of programming language
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A **concatenative programming language** is a [point-free](/wiki/Point-free_programming "Point-free programming") computer [programming language](/wiki/Programming_language "Programming language") in which all expressions denote [functions](/wiki/Function_(mathematics) "Function (mathematics)"), and the [juxtaposition](/wiki/Juxtaposition "Juxtaposition") of [expressions](/wiki/Expression_(computer_science) "Expression (computer science)") denotes [function composition](/wiki/Function_composition "Function composition").[[1]](#cite_note-dobbscodetalk-1) Concatenative programming replaces [function application](/wiki/Function_application "Function application"), which is common in other [programming paradigms](/wiki/Programming_paradigm "Programming paradigm"), with [function composition](/wiki/Function_composition_(computer_science) "Function composition (computer science)") as the default way to build [subroutines](/wiki/Function_(computer_programming) "Function (computer programming)").
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## Example
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[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Concatenative_programming_language&action=edit§ion=1 "Edit section: Example")]
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For example, a nesting of operations in an applicative language like the following:
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```
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baz(bar(foo(x)))
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```
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...is written in a concatenative language as a sequence of functions:[[2]](#cite_note-2)
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```
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x foo bar baz
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```
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Functions and procedures written in concatenative style are not [value level](/wiki/Value-level_programming "Value-level programming"), i.e., they typically do not represent the data structures they operate on with explicit names or [identifiers](/wiki/Identifier#In_computer_science "Identifier"). Instead they are [function level](/wiki/Function-level_programming "Function-level programming") – a function is defined as a [pipeline](/wiki/Pipeline_(software) "Pipeline (software)"), or a sequence of operations that take parameters from an implicit [data structure](/wiki/Data_structure "Data structure") on which all functions operate, and return the function results to that shared structure so that it will be used by the next operator.[[3]](#cite_note-3)
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The combination of compositional [semantics](/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science) "Semantics (computer science)") with a [syntax](/wiki/Syntax_(programming_languages) "Syntax (programming languages)") that mirrors such a semantic makes concatenative languages highly amenable to algebraic manipulation of programs;[[4]](#cite_note-4) although it may be difficult to write mathematical expressions directly in them.[[5]](#cite_note-whymatters-5) Concatenative languages can be implemented efficiently with a [stack machine](/wiki/Stack_machine "Stack machine"), and are commonly present implicitly in [virtual machines](/wiki/Virtual_machine "Virtual machine") in the form of their [instruction sets](/wiki/Instruction_set "Instruction set").[[5]](#cite_note-whymatters-5)
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## Properties
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[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Concatenative_programming_language&action=edit§ion=2 "Edit section: Properties")]
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The properties of concatenative languages are the result of their compositional syntax and semantics:
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* The reduction of any expression is the simplification of one function to another function; it is never necessary to deal with the application of functions to objects.[[6]](#cite_note-6)
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* Any subexpression can be replaced with a name that represents the same subexpression. In concatenative programming practice, this is called [factoring](/wiki/Code_refactoring "Code refactoring"), and is used extensively to simplify programs into smaller parts.
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* The syntax and semantics of concatenative languages form the algebraic structure of a [monoid](/wiki/Monoid "Monoid").[[7]](#cite_note-7)
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* Concatenative languages can be made well-suited to an implementation inspired by [linear logic](/wiki/Linear_logic "Linear logic") where no [garbage](/wiki/Garbage_(computer_science) "Garbage (computer science)") is ever generated.[[8]](#cite_note-8)
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## Implementations
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[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Concatenative_programming_language&action=edit§ion=3 "Edit section: Implementations")]
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The first concatenative programming language was [Forth](/wiki/Forth_(programming_language) "Forth (programming language)"), although [Joy](/wiki/Joy_(programming_language) "Joy (programming language)") was the first language which was termed concatenative. Other concatenative languages are [dc](/wiki/Dc_(computer_program) "Dc (computer program)"), [Factor](/wiki/Factor_(programming_language) "Factor (programming language)"), Onyx, [PostScript](/wiki/PostScript "PostScript"), [RPL](/wiki/RPL_(programming_language) "RPL (programming language)"), Staapl,[[9]](#cite_note-Staapl-9) and experimental and discontinued ones including: Enchilada,[[10]](#cite_note-Enchilada-10) Om,[[11]](#cite_note-Om-11) XY.[[12]](#cite_note-XY-12)
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Most existing concatenative languages are [stack-based](/wiki/Stack-oriented_programming "Stack-oriented programming"). This is not required, and other models have been proposed.[[12]](#cite_note-XY-12)[[10]](#cite_note-Enchilada-10)[[11]](#cite_note-Om-11) Concatenative languages are currently used for [embedded](/wiki/Embedded_system "Embedded system"),[[9]](#cite_note-Staapl-9) [desktop](/wiki/Application_software "Application software"), and [web programming](/wiki/Web_development "Web development"), as [target languages](/wiki/Translator_(computing) "Translator (computing)"), and for research purposes.
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Most concatenative languages are [dynamically typed](/wiki/Dynamically_typed "Dynamically typed"). Exceptions include the [statically typed](/wiki/Statically_typed "Statically typed") Cat language[[13]](#cite_note-13) and its successor, Kitten.[[14]](#cite_note-14)
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## See also
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[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Concatenative_programming_language&action=edit§ion=4 "Edit section: See also")]
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* [Function-level programming](/wiki/Function-level_programming "Function-level programming")
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* [Homoiconicity](/wiki/Homoiconicity "Homoiconicity")
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* [Stack-oriented programming language](/wiki/Stack-oriented_programming_language "Stack-oriented programming language")
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* [Tacit programming](/wiki/Tacit_programming "Tacit programming")
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## References
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[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Concatenative_programming_language&action=edit§ion=5 "Edit section: References")]
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1. **[^](#cite_ref-dobbscodetalk_1-0)** Diggins, Christopher (2008-12-31). ["What is a concatenative language"](http://drdobbs.com/blogs/architecture-and-design/228701299). *[Dr. Dobb's Journal](/wiki/Dr._Dobb%27s_Journal "Dr. Dobb's Journal")*. Retrieved 2013-07-01.
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2. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** ["Name code not values"](http://concatenative.org/wiki/view/Concatenative%20language/Name%20code%20not%20values). Concatenative.org. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
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3. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** ["Concatenative language"](http://concatenative.org/wiki/view/Concatenative%20language). Concatenative.org. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
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4. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** ["Rationale for Joy, a functional language"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110115151536/http://www.latrobe.edu.au/philosophy/phimvt/joy/j00rat.html). Archived from [the original](http://www.latrobe.edu.au/philosophy/phimvt/joy/j00rat.html) on 2011-01-15.
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5. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-whymatters_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-whymatters_5-1) Purdy, Jon (12 February 2012). ["Why Concatenative Programming Matters"](http://evincarofautumn.blogspot.com/2012/02/why-concatenative-programming-matters.html). *The Big Mud Puddle*. Retrieved 12 August 2025.
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6. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** von Thun, Manfred (2011). ["Joy compared with other functional languages"](https://web.archive.org/web/20111006225512/http://www.latrobe.edu.au/phimvt/joy/j08cnt.html). Archived from [the original](http://www.latrobe.edu.au/phimvt/joy/j08cnt.html) on 2011-10-06.
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7. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** von Thun, Manfred (2009). ["Mathematical foundations of Joy"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100731060810/http://www.latrobe.edu.au/philosophy/phimvt/joy/j02maf.html). Archived from [the original](http://www.latrobe.edu.au/philosophy/phimvt/joy/j02maf.html) on 2010-07-31.
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8. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Baker, Henry (1993). [Linear Logic and Permutation Stacks: The Forth Shall Be First](https://web.archive.org/web/20140724091729/http://home.pipeline.com/~hbaker1/ForthStack.html) (Report). Nimble Computer Corporation. Archived from [the original](http://home.pipeline.com/~hbaker1/ForthStack.html) on 2014-07-24. Retrieved 2013-07-01 – via Home.pipeline.com.
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9. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Staapl_9-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Staapl_9-1) Schouten, Tom (zwizwa). ["Staapl: Forth on Scheme for Embedded Controllers"](http://zwizwa.be/staapl/). *Zwizwa LLC*. Retrieved 12 August 2025.
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10. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Enchilada_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Enchilada_10-1) rapido; NewDave; jacintheford; goren (2 January 2024). ["Enchilada"](https://concatenative.org/wiki/view/Enchilada). *Concatenative.org*. Retrieved 12 August 2025.
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11. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Om_11-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Om_11-1) sparist. ["The Om Programming Language"](https://www.om-language.com/). *Om-language.com*. Retrieved 12 August 2025.
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12. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-XY_12-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-XY_12-1) Apter, Stevan (2004). ["The Concatenative Language XY"](http://www.nsl.com/k/xy/xy.htm). *no stinking loops*. Retrieved 12 August 2025.
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13. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** ["Cat Specification"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150205081218/http://cat-language.com/manual.html). Cat-language.com. Archived from [the original](http://www.cat-language.com/manual.html) on 2015-02-05. Retrieved 2013-07-01.
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14. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Purdy, Jon. ["Kitten Programming Language"](https://kittenlang.org/). *kittenlang.org*. Retrieved 2025-03-31.[*[dead link](/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot "Wikipedia:Link rot")*]
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## External links
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[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Concatenative_programming_language&action=edit§ion=6 "Edit section: External links")]
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* [Concatenative.org: Wiki](http://www.concatenative.org/), about concatenative programming
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| * [v](/wiki/Template:Programming_paradigms_navbox "Template:Programming paradigms navbox") * [t](/wiki/Template_talk:Programming_paradigms_navbox "Template talk:Programming paradigms navbox") * [e](/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Programming_paradigms_navbox "Special:EditPage/Template:Programming paradigms navbox") [Programming paradigms](/wiki/Programming_paradigm "Programming paradigm") | |
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| --- | --- |
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| [Imperative](/wiki/Imperative_programming "Imperative programming") | | | | | --- | --- | | [Structured](/wiki/Structured_programming "Structured programming") | * [Jackson structures](/wiki/Jackson_structured_programming "Jackson structured programming") * [Block-structured](/wiki/Block_(programming) "Block (programming)") * [Modular](/wiki/Modular_programming "Modular programming") * [Non-structured](/wiki/Non-structured_programming "Non-structured programming") * [Procedural](/wiki/Procedural_programming "Procedural programming") * [Programming in the large and in the small](/wiki/Programming_in_the_large_and_programming_in_the_small "Programming in the large and programming in the small") * [Design by contract](/wiki/Design_by_contract "Design by contract") * [Invariant-based](/wiki/Invariant-based_programming "Invariant-based programming") * [Nested function](/wiki/Nested_function "Nested function") | | [Object-oriented](/wiki/Object-oriented_programming "Object-oriented programming") | * [Class-based](/wiki/Class-based_programming "Class-based programming"), [Prototype-based](/wiki/Prototype-based_programming "Prototype-based programming"), [Object-based](/wiki/Object-based_language "Object-based language") * [Agent](/wiki/Agent-oriented_programming "Agent-oriented programming") * [Immutable object](/wiki/Immutable_object "Immutable object") * [Persistent](/wiki/Persistent_programming_language "Persistent programming language") * [Uniform function call syntax](/wiki/Uniform_function_call_syntax "Uniform function call syntax") | |
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| [Declarative](/wiki/Declarative_programming "Declarative programming") | | | | | --- | --- | | [Functional](/wiki/Functional_programming "Functional programming") | * [Recursive](/wiki/Recursion_(computer_science) "Recursion (computer science)") * [Anonymous function](/wiki/Anonymous_function "Anonymous function") ([Partial application](/wiki/Partial_application "Partial application")) * [Higher-order](/wiki/Higher-order_programming "Higher-order programming") * [Purely functional](/wiki/Purely_functional_programming "Purely functional programming") * [Total](/wiki/Total_functional_programming "Total functional programming") * [Strict](/wiki/Strict_programming_language "Strict programming language") * [GADTs](/wiki/Generalized_algebraic_data_type "Generalized algebraic data type") * [Dependent types](/wiki/Dependent_type "Dependent type") * [Functional logic](/wiki/Functional_logic_programming "Functional logic programming") * [Point-free style](/wiki/Tacit_programming "Tacit programming") * [Expression-oriented](/wiki/Expression-oriented_programming_language "Expression-oriented programming language") * [Applicative](/wiki/Applicative_programming_language "Applicative programming language"), Concatenative * [Function-level](/wiki/Function-level_programming "Function-level programming"), [Value-level](/wiki/Value-level_programming "Value-level programming") * [Monad](/wiki/Monad_(functional_programming) "Monad (functional programming)") | | [Dataflow](/wiki/Dataflow_programming "Dataflow programming") | * [Flow-based](/wiki/Flow-based_programming "Flow-based programming") * [Reactive](/wiki/Reactive_programming "Reactive programming") ([Functional reactive](/wiki/Functional_reactive_programming "Functional reactive programming")) * [Signals](/wiki/SIGNAL_(programming_language) "SIGNAL (programming language)") * [Streams](/wiki/Stream_processing "Stream processing") * [Synchronous](/wiki/Synchronous_programming_language "Synchronous programming language") | | [Logic](/wiki/Logic_programming "Logic programming") | * [Abductive logic](/wiki/Abductive_logic_programming "Abductive logic programming") * [Answer set](/wiki/Answer_set_programming "Answer set programming") * [Constraint](/wiki/Constraint_programming "Constraint programming") ([Constraint logic](/wiki/Constraint_logic_programming "Constraint logic programming")) * [Inductive logic](/wiki/Inductive_logic_programming "Inductive logic programming") * [Nondeterministic](/wiki/Nondeterministic_programming "Nondeterministic programming") * [Ontology](/wiki/Ontology_language "Ontology language") * [Probabilistic logic](/wiki/Probabilistic_logic_programming "Probabilistic logic programming") * [Query](/wiki/Query_language "Query language") | | [Domain- specific language](/wiki/Domain-specific_language "Domain-specific language") (DSL) | * [Algebraic modeling](/wiki/Algebraic_modeling_language "Algebraic modeling language") * [Array](/wiki/Array_programming "Array programming") * [Automata-based](/wiki/Automata-based_programming "Automata-based programming") ([Action](/wiki/Action_language "Action language")) * [Command](/wiki/Command_language "Command language") ([Spacecraft](/wiki/Spacecraft_command_language "Spacecraft command language")) * [Differentiable](/wiki/Differentiable_programming "Differentiable programming") * [End-user](/wiki/End-user_development "End-user development") * [Grammar-oriented](/wiki/Grammar-oriented_programming "Grammar-oriented programming") * [Interface description](/wiki/Interface_description_language "Interface description language") * [Language-oriented](/wiki/Language-oriented_programming "Language-oriented programming") * [List comprehension](/wiki/List_comprehension "List comprehension") * [Low-code](/wiki/Low-code_development_platform "Low-code development platform") * [Modeling](/wiki/Modeling_language "Modeling language") * [Natural language](/wiki/Natural_language_programming "Natural language programming") * [Non-English-based](/wiki/Non-English-based_programming_languages "Non-English-based programming languages") * [Page description](/wiki/Page_description_language "Page description language") * [Pipes](/wiki/Pipeline_(software) "Pipeline (software)") and [filters](/wiki/Filter_(software) "Filter (software)") * [Probabilistic](/wiki/Probabilistic_programming "Probabilistic programming") * [Quantum](/wiki/Quantum_programming "Quantum programming") * [Scientific](/wiki/Scientific_programming_language "Scientific programming language") * [Scripting](/wiki/Scripting_language "Scripting language") * [Set-theoretic](/wiki/Set_theoretic_programming "Set theoretic programming") * [Simulation](/wiki/Simulation_language "Simulation language") * [Stack-based](/wiki/Stack-oriented_programming "Stack-oriented programming") * [System](/wiki/System_programming_language "System programming language") * [Tactile](/wiki/Tactile_programming_language "Tactile programming language") * [Templating](/wiki/Template_processor "Template processor") * [Transformation](/wiki/Transformation_language "Transformation language") ([Graph rewriting](/wiki/Graph_rewriting "Graph rewriting"), [Production](/wiki/Production_system_(computer_science) "Production system (computer science)"), [Pattern](/wiki/Pattern_matching "Pattern matching")) * [Visual](/wiki/Visual_programming_language "Visual programming language") | |
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| [Concurrent](/wiki/Concurrent_computing "Concurrent computing"), [parallel](/wiki/Parallel_computing "Parallel computing") | * [Actor-based](/wiki/Actor_model "Actor model") * [Automatic mutual exclusion](/wiki/Automatic_mutual_exclusion "Automatic mutual exclusion") * [Choreographic programming](/wiki/Choreographic_programming "Choreographic programming") * [Concurrent logic](/wiki/Concurrent_logic_programming "Concurrent logic programming") ([Concurrent constraint logic](/wiki/Concurrent_constraint_logic_programming "Concurrent constraint logic programming")) * [Concurrent OO](/wiki/Concurrent_object-oriented_programming "Concurrent object-oriented programming") * [Macroprogramming](/wiki/Macroprogramming "Macroprogramming") * [Multitier programming](/wiki/Multitier_programming "Multitier programming") * [Organic computing](/wiki/Organic_computing "Organic computing") * [Parallel programming models](/wiki/Parallel_programming_model "Parallel programming model") * [Partitioned global address space](/wiki/Partitioned_global_address_space "Partitioned global address space") * [Process-oriented](/wiki/Process-oriented_programming "Process-oriented programming") * [Relativistic programming](/wiki/Relativistic_programming "Relativistic programming") * [Service-oriented](/wiki/Service-oriented_programming "Service-oriented programming") * [Structured concurrency](/wiki/Structured_concurrency "Structured concurrency") |
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| [Metaprogramming](/wiki/Metaprogramming "Metaprogramming") | * [Attribute-oriented](/wiki/Attribute-oriented_programming "Attribute-oriented programming") * [Automatic](/wiki/Automatic_programming "Automatic programming") ([Inductive](/wiki/Inductive_programming "Inductive programming")) * [Dynamic](/wiki/Dynamic_programming_language "Dynamic programming language") * [Extensible](/wiki/Extensible_programming "Extensible programming") * [Generic](/wiki/Generic_programming "Generic programming") * [Homoiconicity](/wiki/Homoiconicity "Homoiconicity") * [Interactive](/wiki/Interactive_programming "Interactive programming") * [Macro](/wiki/Macro_(computer_science) "Macro (computer science)") ([Hygienic](/wiki/Hygienic_macro "Hygienic macro")) * [Metalinguistic abstraction](/wiki/Metalinguistic_abstraction "Metalinguistic abstraction") * [Multi-stage](/wiki/Multi-stage_programming "Multi-stage programming") * [Program synthesis](/wiki/Program_synthesis "Program synthesis") ([Bayesian](/wiki/Bayesian_program_synthesis "Bayesian program synthesis"), [by demonstration](/wiki/Programming_by_demonstration "Programming by demonstration"), [by example](/wiki/Programming_by_example "Programming by example"), [vibe coding](/wiki/Vibe_coding "Vibe coding")) * [Reflective](/wiki/Reflective_programming "Reflective programming") * [Self-modifying code](/wiki/Self-modifying_code "Self-modifying code") * [Symbolic](/wiki/Symbolic_programming "Symbolic programming") * [Template](/wiki/Template_metaprogramming "Template metaprogramming") |
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| [Separation of concerns](/wiki/Separation_of_concerns "Separation of concerns") | * [Aspects](/wiki/Aspect-oriented_programming "Aspect-oriented programming") * [Components](/wiki/Component-based_software_engineering "Component-based software engineering") * [Data-driven](/wiki/Data-driven_programming "Data-driven programming") * [Data-oriented](/wiki/Data-oriented_design "Data-oriented design") * [Event-driven](/wiki/Event-driven_programming "Event-driven programming") * [Features](/wiki/Feature-oriented_programming "Feature-oriented programming") * [Literate](/wiki/Literate_programming "Literate programming") * [Roles](/wiki/Role-oriented_programming "Role-oriented programming") * [Subjects](/wiki/Subject-oriented_programming "Subject-oriented programming") |
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| Comparisons/Lists | [Comparison](/wiki/Comparison_of_programming_languages "Comparison of programming languages") ([multi-paradigm](/wiki/Comparison_of_multi-paradigm_programming_languages "Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages"), [object-oriented](/wiki/Comparison_of_programming_languages_(object-oriented_programming) "Comparison of programming languages (object-oriented programming)"), [functional](/wiki/Comparison_of_functional_programming_languages "Comparison of functional programming languages")), [List](/wiki/List_of_programming_languages "List of programming languages") ([OO](/wiki/List_of_object-oriented_programming_languages "List of object-oriented programming languages"), [by type](/wiki/List_of_programming_languages_by_type "List of programming languages by type")) |
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| * [v](/wiki/Template:Types_of_programming_languages "Template:Types of programming languages") * [t](/wiki/Template_talk:Types_of_programming_languages "Template talk:Types of programming languages") * [e](/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Types_of_programming_languages "Special:EditPage/Template:Types of programming languages") [Types of programming languages](/wiki/Programming_paradigm "Programming paradigm") | |
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| --- | --- |
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| Level | * [Machine](/wiki/Machine_code "Machine code") * [Assembly](/wiki/Assembly_language "Assembly language") * [Compiled](/wiki/Compiled_language "Compiled language") * [Interpreted](/wiki/Interpreted_language "Interpreted language") * [Low-level](/wiki/Low-level_programming_language "Low-level programming language") * [High-level](/wiki/High-level_programming_language "High-level programming language") * [Very high-level](/wiki/Very_high-level_programming_language "Very high-level programming language") * [Esoteric](/wiki/Esoteric_programming_language "Esoteric programming language") |
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| [Generation](/wiki/Programming_language_generations "Programming language generations") | * [First](/wiki/First-generation_programming_language "First-generation programming language") * [Second](/wiki/Second-generation_programming_language "Second-generation programming language") * [Third](/wiki/Third-generation_programming_language "Third-generation programming language") * [Fourth](/wiki/Fourth-generation_programming_language "Fourth-generation programming language") * [Fifth](/wiki/Fifth-generation_programming_language "Fifth-generation programming language") |
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Concatenative programming language
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