From 2e2b7cbc7efd9206a4b220367a5a9085ef7d4db7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Ed_ Date: Mon, 22 Jun 2026 00:41:45 -0400 Subject: [PATCH] conductor(neural_dynamics_miller): Phase 1 Acquire - transcript (1737 clean segments, 64KB) + 275MB mp4 --- .../artifacts/phase1.log | 11 + .../artifacts/transcript.json | 23968 ++++++++++++++++ .../artifacts/transcript_clean.txt | 1737 ++ .../artifacts/video.log | 16 + 4 files changed, 25732 insertions(+) create mode 100644 conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/phase1.log create mode 100644 conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/transcript.json create mode 100644 conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/transcript_clean.txt create mode 100644 conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/video.log diff --git a/conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/phase1.log b/conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/phase1.log new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d94fc113 --- /dev/null +++ b/conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/phase1.log @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +Phase 1 Acquire for neural_dynamics_miller: https://youtu.be/0BS-BzEFTXA +Artifacts: C:\projects\manual_slop\conductor\tracks\video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621\artifacts +Step 1: extract_transcript (yt-dlp VTT directly) + OK: wrote C:\projects\manual_slop\conductor\tracks\video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621\artifacts\transcript.json (3402 segments) +Step 2: download_video + OK: wrote C:\projects\manual_slop\conductor\tracks\video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621\artifacts\video.mp4 (287904174 bytes) +{ + "status": "ok", + "video_path": "C:\\projects\\manual_slop\\conductor\\tracks\\video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621\\artifacts\\video.mp4", + "transcript_path": "C:\\projects\\manual_slop\\conductor\\tracks\\video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621\\artifacts\\transcript.json" +} diff --git a/conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/transcript.json b/conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/transcript.json new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4b13e81d --- /dev/null +++ b/conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/transcript.json @@ -0,0 +1,23968 @@ +{ + "video_id": "0BS-BzEFTXA", + "segments": [ + { + "start": 0.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um<00:00:00.560> what<00:00:00.719> I'll<00:00:00.960> be<00:00:01.120> talking<00:00:01.280> about<00:00:01.439> today,<00:00:01.760> I'm" + }, + { + "start": 1.9100000000000001, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um what I'll be talking about today, I'm" + }, + { + "start": 1.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um what I'll be talking about today, I'm a<00:00:02.080> neuroscientist<00:00:02.879> at<00:00:02.960> at<00:00:03.200> MIT<00:00:03.840> and<00:00:04.400> our<00:00:04.640> lab" + }, + { + "start": 4.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a neuroscientist at at MIT and our lab" + }, + { + "start": 4.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a neuroscientist at at MIT and our lab has<00:00:05.200> been<00:00:06.000> um<00:00:06.240> examining<00:00:06.720> the<00:00:06.960> role<00:00:07.120> of" + }, + { + "start": 7.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "has been um examining the role of" + }, + { + "start": 7.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "has been um examining the role of electric<00:00:07.839> field<00:00:08.160> effects<00:00:08.720> in<00:00:09.040> uh<00:00:09.200> in<00:00:09.360> in<00:00:09.920> um" + }, + { + "start": 10.709, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric field effects in uh in in um" + }, + { + "start": 10.719, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric field effects in uh in in um cognition<00:00:11.200> and<00:00:11.440> consciousness<00:00:12.480> and<00:00:12.719> it's" + }, + { + "start": 13.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cognition and consciousness and it's" + }, + { + "start": 13.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cognition and consciousness and it's electric<00:00:13.440> fields<00:00:13.759> are<00:00:13.920> something<00:00:14.080> that's" + }, + { + "start": 14.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric fields are something that's" + }, + { + "start": 14.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric fields are something that's been<00:00:14.559> um<00:00:14.719> it's<00:00:15.040> a<00:00:15.360> signal<00:00:15.759> it's<00:00:15.920> a<00:00:16.160> mechanism" + }, + { + "start": 16.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "been um it's a signal it's a mechanism" + }, + { + "start": 16.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "been um it's a signal it's a mechanism that's<00:00:16.880> been<00:00:17.039> underststudied<00:00:17.680> in" + }, + { + "start": 17.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's been underststudied in" + }, + { + "start": 17.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's been underststudied in neuroscience<00:00:18.400> and<00:00:18.640> we're<00:00:18.880> trying<00:00:19.039> to<00:00:19.199> change" + }, + { + "start": 19.429, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuroscience and we're trying to change" + }, + { + "start": 19.439, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuroscience and we're trying to change that.<00:00:20.320> So<00:00:20.560> let<00:00:20.720> me<00:00:20.880> dive<00:00:21.119> right<00:00:21.279> in.<00:00:21.680> So<00:00:21.840> I" + }, + { + "start": 22.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that. So let me dive right in. So I" + }, + { + "start": 22.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that. So let me dive right in. So I think<00:00:22.160> the<00:00:22.400> the<00:00:22.720> best<00:00:22.880> way<00:00:23.039> to<00:00:23.279> tell<00:00:23.439> you<00:00:24.080> how" + }, + { + "start": 24.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "think the the best way to tell you how" + }, + { + "start": 24.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "think the the best way to tell you how our<00:00:24.560> think<00:00:24.800> where<00:00:25.039> our<00:00:25.279> thinking<00:00:25.760> about<00:00:26.000> the" + }, + { + "start": 26.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "our think where our thinking about the" + }, + { + "start": 26.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "our think where our thinking about the brain<00:00:26.480> is<00:00:26.720> right<00:00:26.960> now<00:00:27.840> is<00:00:28.160> to<00:00:28.960> tell<00:00:29.199> you<00:00:29.840> where" + }, + { + "start": 30.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain is right now is to tell you where" + }, + { + "start": 30.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain is right now is to tell you where we<00:00:30.320> came<00:00:30.400> from.<00:00:30.640> So<00:00:30.800> I'm<00:00:30.880> going<00:00:30.960> to<00:00:31.039> give<00:00:31.119> you<00:00:31.279> a" + }, + { + "start": 31.429, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we came from. So I'm going to give you a" + }, + { + "start": 31.439, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we came from. So I'm going to give you a little<00:00:31.519> bit<00:00:31.599> of<00:00:31.760> an<00:00:31.920> historical<00:00:32.559> overview<00:00:33.120> of" + }, + { + "start": 33.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "little bit of an historical overview of" + }, + { + "start": 33.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "little bit of an historical overview of our<00:00:33.680> how<00:00:33.920> our<00:00:34.079> thinking<00:00:34.320> in<00:00:34.399> the<00:00:34.640> brain<00:00:34.880> has" + }, + { + "start": 35.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "our how our thinking in the brain has" + }, + { + "start": 35.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "our how our thinking in the brain has changed<00:00:35.360> in<00:00:35.600> the<00:00:35.760> past<00:00:36.160> I<00:00:36.399> don't<00:00:36.480> know<00:00:36.640> hundred" + }, + { + "start": 36.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "changed in the past I don't know hundred" + }, + { + "start": 36.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "changed in the past I don't know hundred years<00:00:37.440> and<00:00:37.680> then<00:00:37.920> you'll<00:00:38.160> you'll<00:00:38.480> you'll<00:00:38.960> have" + }, + { + "start": 39.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "years and then you'll you'll you'll have" + }, + { + "start": 39.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "years and then you'll you'll you'll have a<00:00:39.280> better<00:00:39.440> understanding<00:00:39.840> of<00:00:40.000> of<00:00:40.160> where<00:00:40.399> where" + }, + { + "start": 40.709, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a better understanding of of where where" + }, + { + "start": 40.719, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a better understanding of of where where we<00:00:41.200> why<00:00:41.440> we're<00:00:41.600> thinking<00:00:41.920> the<00:00:42.079> way<00:00:42.160> we<00:00:42.320> do<00:00:42.480> now." + }, + { + "start": 43.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we why we're thinking the way we do now." + }, + { + "start": 43.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we why we're thinking the way we do now. So<00:00:44.559> sorry<00:00:44.800> let<00:00:44.960> me<00:00:45.120> get<00:00:45.280> my<00:00:45.440> screen<00:00:45.680> going." + }, + { + "start": 45.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So sorry let me get my screen going." + }, + { + "start": 46.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So sorry let me get my screen going. There<00:00:46.079> we<00:00:46.239> go.<00:00:47.120> What<00:00:47.360> is<00:00:47.600> thought?<00:00:48.079> Well<00:00:48.320> we" + }, + { + "start": 48.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "There we go. What is thought? Well we" + }, + { + "start": 48.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "There we go. What is thought? Well we know<00:00:48.800> thought<00:00:49.280> is<00:00:49.520> composed<00:00:49.840> of<00:00:50.000> neurons." + }, + { + "start": 50.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know thought is composed of neurons." + }, + { + "start": 50.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know thought is composed of neurons. Neurons<00:00:50.960> are<00:00:51.200> brain<00:00:51.520> cells.<00:00:52.399> They<00:00:52.719> connect<00:00:52.960> to" + }, + { + "start": 53.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Neurons are brain cells. They connect to" + }, + { + "start": 53.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Neurons are brain cells. They connect to one<00:00:53.280> another<00:00:53.520> at<00:00:53.760> junctions,<00:00:54.399> connections" + }, + { + "start": 54.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "one another at junctions, connections" + }, + { + "start": 54.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "one another at junctions, connections called<00:00:55.280> synapses.<00:00:56.480> And<00:00:56.640> they<00:00:56.879> signal<00:00:57.199> each" + }, + { + "start": 57.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "called synapses. And they signal each" + }, + { + "start": 57.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "called synapses. And they signal each other<00:00:57.600> by<00:00:57.920> brief<00:00:58.559> electrical<00:00:59.039> impulses<00:00:59.840> that" + }, + { + "start": 60.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "other by brief electrical impulses that" + }, + { + "start": 60.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "other by brief electrical impulses that we<00:01:00.320> call<00:01:00.640> spikes.<00:01:01.039> And<00:01:01.199> I'll<00:01:01.359> be<00:01:01.520> referring<00:01:01.760> to" + }, + { + "start": 61.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we call spikes. And I'll be referring to" + }, + { + "start": 61.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we call spikes. And I'll be referring to spikes<00:01:02.239> for<00:01:02.399> the<00:01:02.559> rest<00:01:02.640> of<00:01:02.800> my<00:01:02.960> talk<00:01:03.199> in" + }, + { + "start": 63.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spikes for the rest of my talk in" + }, + { + "start": 63.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spikes for the rest of my talk in addition<00:01:03.680> to<00:01:04.239> electric<00:01:04.640> field.<00:01:04.960> But<00:01:05.040> spikes" + }, + { + "start": 65.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "addition to electric field. But spikes" + }, + { + "start": 65.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "addition to electric field. But spikes are<00:01:06.000> the<00:01:06.560> electrical<00:01:06.880> impulses<00:01:07.360> from" + }, + { + "start": 67.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are the electrical impulses from" + }, + { + "start": 67.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are the electrical impulses from individual<00:01:08.000> neurons<00:01:08.479> like<00:01:08.720> individual" + }, + { + "start": 69.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "individual neurons like individual" + }, + { + "start": 69.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "individual neurons like individual voices<00:01:10.080> in<00:01:10.240> a<00:01:10.479> large<00:01:10.720> crowd.<00:01:11.920> And<00:01:12.320> the<00:01:12.560> idea<00:01:12.720> is" + }, + { + "start": 72.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "voices in a large crowd. And the idea is" + }, + { + "start": 72.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "voices in a large crowd. And the idea is that<00:01:13.119> the<00:01:13.439> neurons<00:01:13.840> signal<00:01:14.159> one<00:01:14.400> another<00:01:14.640> by" + }, + { + "start": 75.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that the neurons signal one another by" + }, + { + "start": 75.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that the neurons signal one another by by<00:01:15.520> um<00:01:15.680> sending<00:01:15.920> these<00:01:16.240> spikes<00:01:16.640> along<00:01:17.200> uh<00:01:18.000> um" + }, + { + "start": 78.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "by um sending these spikes along uh um" + }, + { + "start": 78.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "by um sending these spikes along uh um axons<00:01:19.360> and<00:01:19.600> dendrites.<00:01:20.159> the<00:01:20.400> connections<00:01:21.200> and" + }, + { + "start": 81.429, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "axons and dendrites. the connections and" + }, + { + "start": 81.439, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "axons and dendrites. the connections and across<00:01:21.840> synapses<00:01:22.400> and<00:01:22.560> that's<00:01:22.720> what's" + }, + { + "start": 83.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "across synapses and that's what's" + }, + { + "start": 83.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "across synapses and that's what's illustrated<00:01:23.439> here<00:01:24.240> spiking<00:01:24.720> activity<00:01:25.280> the" + }, + { + "start": 85.429, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "illustrated here spiking activity the" + }, + { + "start": 85.439, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "illustrated here spiking activity the brain<00:01:25.680> signaling<00:01:26.159> all<00:01:26.400> taking<00:01:26.640> place<00:01:26.880> by" + }, + { + "start": 87.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain signaling all taking place by" + }, + { + "start": 87.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain signaling all taking place by these<00:01:27.840> spiking<00:01:28.320> moving<00:01:28.560> down<00:01:28.799> the<00:01:28.960> brain's" + }, + { + "start": 89.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these spiking moving down the brain's" + }, + { + "start": 89.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these spiking moving down the brain's connections<00:01:30.799> and<00:01:31.040> the<00:01:31.200> brains<00:01:31.439> have<00:01:31.600> a<00:01:31.759> lot<00:01:31.840> of" + }, + { + "start": 91.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections and the brains have a lot of" + }, + { + "start": 91.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections and the brains have a lot of this<00:01:32.159> stuff<00:01:32.640> your<00:01:32.880> cortex<00:01:33.280> alone<00:01:33.680> I'll<00:01:33.840> be<00:01:33.920> f" + }, + { + "start": 94.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this stuff your cortex alone I'll be f" + }, + { + "start": 94.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this stuff your cortex alone I'll be f since<00:01:34.479> I'm<00:01:34.720> interested<00:01:35.040> in<00:01:35.280> cognition<00:01:35.680> and" + }, + { + "start": 95.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "since I'm interested in cognition and" + }, + { + "start": 95.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "since I'm interested in cognition and consciousness<00:01:37.040> I'm<00:01:37.520> uh<00:01:37.840> going<00:01:38.000> to<00:01:38.079> focus" + }, + { + "start": 98.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "consciousness I'm uh going to focus" + }, + { + "start": 98.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "consciousness I'm uh going to focus mainly<00:01:38.720> on<00:01:38.880> the<00:01:39.040> cortex<00:01:39.600> today<00:01:40.400> the<00:01:40.640> cortex" + }, + { + "start": 101.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mainly on the cortex today the cortex" + }, + { + "start": 101.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mainly on the cortex today the cortex alone<00:01:41.520> which<00:01:41.759> is<00:01:41.840> where<00:01:42.000> a<00:01:42.159> lot<00:01:42.240> of<00:01:42.320> the<00:01:42.479> higher" + }, + { + "start": 102.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "alone which is where a lot of the higher" + }, + { + "start": 102.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "alone which is where a lot of the higher thinking<00:01:43.040> in<00:01:43.280> your<00:01:43.439> brain<00:01:43.680> goes<00:01:43.840> on<00:01:44.720> your" + }, + { + "start": 104.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thinking in your brain goes on your" + }, + { + "start": 104.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thinking in your brain goes on your cortex<00:01:45.439> alone<00:01:45.840> contains<00:01:46.399> 20<00:01:46.720> billion<00:01:47.040> neurons" + }, + { + "start": 107.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex alone contains 20 billion neurons" + }, + { + "start": 108.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex alone contains 20 billion neurons and<00:01:48.240> they<00:01:48.399> form<00:01:49.360> uh<00:01:49.520> 10<00:01:49.840> to<00:01:49.920> the<00:01:50.159> 14<00:01:50.479> synaptic" + }, + { + "start": 110.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and they form uh 10 to the 14 synaptic" + }, + { + "start": 110.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and they form uh 10 to the 14 synaptic connections.<00:01:51.680> I<00:01:51.920> don't<00:01:52.079> know<00:01:52.240> what<00:01:52.720> number<00:01:53.040> 10" + }, + { + "start": 113.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections. I don't know what number 10" + }, + { + "start": 113.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections. I don't know what number 10 to<00:01:53.439> the<00:01:53.680> 14<00:01:54.000> is.<00:01:54.399> Let's<00:01:54.560> just<00:01:54.720> call<00:01:54.880> it<00:01:55.040> a" + }, + { + "start": 115.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to the 14 is. Let's just call it a" + }, + { + "start": 115.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to the 14 is. Let's just call it a gazillion." + }, + { + "start": 117.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "gazillion." + }, + { + "start": 117.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "gazillion. And<00:01:57.439> at<00:01:57.680> first,<00:01:58.000> like<00:01:58.479> um<00:01:59.119> before<00:01:59.439> the<00:01:59.680> mid" + }, + { + "start": 119.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And at first, like um before the mid" + }, + { + "start": 120.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And at first, like um before the mid 20th<00:02:00.320> century,<00:02:00.799> so<00:02:01.040> late<00:02:01.280> 1800s,<00:02:01.920> early<00:02:02.399> early" + }, + { + "start": 123.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "20th century, so late 1800s, early early" + }, + { + "start": 123.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "20th century, so late 1800s, early early uh<00:02:03.680> uh<00:02:04.320> early<00:02:04.880> 1900s,<00:02:06.159> um<00:02:06.640> neurons<00:02:07.119> were" + }, + { + "start": 127.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh uh early 1900s, um neurons were" + }, + { + "start": 127.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh uh early 1900s, um neurons were poorly<00:02:07.759> understood<00:02:08.160> and<00:02:08.319> sometimes<00:02:08.720> they" + }, + { + "start": 128.869, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "poorly understood and sometimes they" + }, + { + "start": 128.879, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "poorly understood and sometimes they were<00:02:09.119> regarded<00:02:09.599> as<00:02:09.840> like<00:02:10.000> mere<00:02:10.399> build" + }, + { + "start": 130.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "were regarded as like mere build" + }, + { + "start": 130.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "were regarded as like mere build building<00:02:11.200> blocks<00:02:11.599> or<00:02:11.920> scaffolding," + }, + { + "start": 133.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "building blocks or scaffolding," + }, + { + "start": 133.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "building blocks or scaffolding, right?<00:02:14.160> thought<00:02:14.400> that<00:02:14.560> that<00:02:15.200> neurons<00:02:15.760> were" + }, + { + "start": 135.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "right? thought that that neurons were" + }, + { + "start": 135.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "right? thought that that neurons were like<00:02:16.319> the<00:02:16.560> the<00:02:16.879> somehow<00:02:17.360> the<00:02:17.840> stuff<00:02:18.080> that" + }, + { + "start": 139.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like the the somehow the stuff that" + }, + { + "start": 139.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like the the somehow the stuff that constructs<00:02:19.840> the<00:02:20.080> brain,<00:02:20.319> but<00:02:20.480> they<00:02:20.720> didn't" + }, + { + "start": 140.869, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "constructs the brain, but they didn't" + }, + { + "start": 140.879, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "constructs the brain, but they didn't seem<00:02:21.040> to<00:02:21.200> have<00:02:21.280> any<00:02:21.520> distinct<00:02:22.000> function.<00:02:22.720> And" + }, + { + "start": 142.949, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "seem to have any distinct function. And" + }, + { + "start": 142.959, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "seem to have any distinct function. And why<00:02:23.200> is<00:02:23.360> that?<00:02:23.680> Well,<00:02:23.920> you<00:02:24.080> know,<00:02:24.239> there's" + }, + { + "start": 144.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "why is that? Well, you know, there's" + }, + { + "start": 144.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "why is that? Well, you know, there's limitations<00:02:25.120> to<00:02:25.360> technology.<00:02:25.920> Until<00:02:26.239> about" + }, + { + "start": 146.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "limitations to technology. Until about" + }, + { + "start": 146.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "limitations to technology. Until about the<00:02:26.640> 1950s,<00:02:27.599> we<00:02:27.840> didn't<00:02:28.000> have<00:02:28.160> the<00:02:28.319> technology" + }, + { + "start": 148.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the 1950s, we didn't have the technology" + }, + { + "start": 148.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the 1950s, we didn't have the technology to<00:02:29.040> eased<00:02:29.599> on<00:02:29.840> the<00:02:30.000> spikes<00:02:30.560> from<00:02:30.879> individual" + }, + { + "start": 151.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to eased on the spikes from individual" + }, + { + "start": 151.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to eased on the spikes from individual neurons.<00:02:32.480> And<00:02:32.640> also,<00:02:32.879> if<00:02:33.040> you're<00:02:33.120> going<00:02:33.200> to" + }, + { + "start": 153.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons. And also, if you're going to" + }, + { + "start": 153.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons. And also, if you're going to study<00:02:33.599> something<00:02:33.920> as<00:02:34.160> complex<00:02:34.400> as<00:02:34.560> the<00:02:34.720> brain," + }, + { + "start": 154.949, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "study something as complex as the brain," + }, + { + "start": 154.959, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "study something as complex as the brain, you<00:02:35.120> got<00:02:35.200> to<00:02:35.280> start<00:02:35.440> somewhere.<00:02:35.840> You<00:02:36.000> don't" + }, + { + "start": 156.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you got to start somewhere. You don't" + }, + { + "start": 156.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you got to start somewhere. You don't dive<00:02:36.640> into<00:02:36.959> the<00:02:37.280> details<00:02:37.920> immediately.<00:02:38.959> You" + }, + { + "start": 159.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "dive into the details immediately. You" + }, + { + "start": 159.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "dive into the details immediately. You build<00:02:39.440> up<00:02:39.599> from<00:02:39.760> the<00:02:39.920> details<00:02:40.319> by<00:02:40.560> starting" + }, + { + "start": 160.869, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "build up from the details by starting" + }, + { + "start": 160.879, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "build up from the details by starting simple.<00:02:41.599> And<00:02:41.760> the<00:02:42.000> simplest<00:02:42.319> place<00:02:42.480> to<00:02:42.720> start" + }, + { + "start": 162.869, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "simple. And the simplest place to start" + }, + { + "start": 162.879, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "simple. And the simplest place to start is<00:02:43.120> the<00:02:43.280> brain's<00:02:43.599> gross<00:02:43.920> anatomy." + }, + { + "start": 166.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is the brain's gross anatomy." + }, + { + "start": 166.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is the brain's gross anatomy. But<00:02:46.480> by<00:02:46.720> the<00:02:46.879> 1950s,<00:02:47.519> we<00:02:47.760> developed<00:02:48.000> a" + }, + { + "start": 168.229, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But by the 1950s, we developed a" + }, + { + "start": 168.239, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But by the 1950s, we developed a technology<00:02:48.640> to<00:02:48.879> study<00:02:49.120> electrical<00:02:49.599> spiking" + }, + { + "start": 169.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "technology to study electrical spiking" + }, + { + "start": 169.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "technology to study electrical spiking of<00:02:50.080> individual<00:02:50.480> neurons.<00:02:51.440> And<00:02:51.599> a<00:02:51.840> major" + }, + { + "start": 172.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of individual neurons. And a major" + }, + { + "start": 172.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of individual neurons. And a major discovery<00:02:52.560> was<00:02:52.800> that<00:02:53.040> neurons<00:02:53.440> are<00:02:53.599> not" + }, + { + "start": 173.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "discovery was that neurons are not" + }, + { + "start": 173.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "discovery was that neurons are not bricks<00:02:54.160> or<00:02:54.400> scaffolding.<00:02:55.440> They're<00:02:55.760> little" + }, + { + "start": 176.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "bricks or scaffolding. They're little" + }, + { + "start": 176.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "bricks or scaffolding. They're little information<00:02:56.800> processing<00:02:57.440> units." + }, + { + "start": 179.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information processing units." + }, + { + "start": 179.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information processing units. And<00:02:59.360> this<00:02:59.599> is<00:02:59.760> based<00:02:59.920> on<00:03:00.080> the<00:03:00.319> Nobel<00:03:00.640> prize<00:03:01.040> the" + }, + { + "start": 181.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And this is based on the Nobel prize the" + }, + { + "start": 181.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And this is based on the Nobel prize the the<00:03:01.440> watershed<00:03:02.000> was<00:03:02.159> the<00:03:02.319> Nobel<00:03:02.720> Prize" + }, + { + "start": 182.949, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the watershed was the Nobel Prize" + }, + { + "start": 182.959, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the watershed was the Nobel Prize winning<00:03:03.280> work<00:03:03.440> of<00:03:03.680> Hub<00:03:04.000> and<00:03:04.159> Visel<00:03:04.959> where" + }, + { + "start": 185.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "winning work of Hub and Visel where" + }, + { + "start": 185.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "winning work of Hub and Visel where what's<00:03:05.440> shown<00:03:05.680> here<00:03:05.840> is<00:03:06.400> for<00:03:06.560> example<00:03:06.959> they" + }, + { + "start": 187.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what's shown here is for example they" + }, + { + "start": 187.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what's shown here is for example they were<00:03:07.280> recording<00:03:07.599> from<00:03:07.840> individual<00:03:08.239> neurons" + }, + { + "start": 188.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "were recording from individual neurons" + }, + { + "start": 188.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "were recording from individual neurons in<00:03:08.959> the<00:03:09.200> visual<00:03:09.599> cortex<00:03:10.080> which<00:03:10.239> is<00:03:10.400> at<00:03:10.560> the" + }, + { + "start": 190.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in the visual cortex which is at the" + }, + { + "start": 190.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in the visual cortex which is at the very<00:03:10.959> back<00:03:11.200> of<00:03:11.360> your<00:03:11.519> brain.<00:03:11.840> It's<00:03:11.920> sort<00:03:12.159> of" + }, + { + "start": 192.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "very back of your brain. It's sort of" + }, + { + "start": 192.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "very back of your brain. It's sort of the<00:03:12.640> first<00:03:13.280> v<00:03:13.599> stage<00:03:13.840> of<00:03:14.080> visual<00:03:14.480> processing" + }, + { + "start": 194.949, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the first v stage of visual processing" + }, + { + "start": 194.959, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the first v stage of visual processing goes<00:03:15.200> on<00:03:15.360> in<00:03:15.599> your<00:03:15.760> cortex<00:03:16.879> and<00:03:17.360> they<00:03:17.680> showed" + }, + { + "start": 197.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "goes on in your cortex and they showed" + }, + { + "start": 198.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "goes on in your cortex and they showed the<00:03:18.319> subject<00:03:18.879> different<00:03:19.680> stimuli<00:03:20.400> different" + }, + { + "start": 200.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the subject different stimuli different" + }, + { + "start": 200.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the subject different stimuli different pictures<00:03:21.200> different<00:03:21.680> features<00:03:22.080> on<00:03:22.239> on<00:03:22.560> a" + }, + { + "start": 202.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "pictures different features on on a" + }, + { + "start": 202.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "pictures different features on on a screen.<00:03:23.599> In<00:03:23.840> this<00:03:23.920> case,<00:03:24.159> this<00:03:24.400> individual" + }, + { + "start": 204.869, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "screen. In this case, this individual" + }, + { + "start": 204.879, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "screen. In this case, this individual neuron<00:03:25.200> they're<00:03:25.519> recording<00:03:25.840> from<00:03:26.400> happened" + }, + { + "start": 206.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuron they're recording from happened" + }, + { + "start": 206.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuron they're recording from happened to<00:03:27.360> give<00:03:27.599> off<00:03:28.159> spikes<00:03:29.599> at<00:03:29.920> the<00:03:30.080> site<00:03:30.400> of<00:03:30.640> this" + }, + { + "start": 210.949, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to give off spikes at the site of this" + }, + { + "start": 210.959, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to give off spikes at the site of this leftleaning<00:03:32.000> line<00:03:32.480> appearing<00:03:33.280> at<00:03:33.519> this" + }, + { + "start": 213.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "leftleaning line appearing at this" + }, + { + "start": 213.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "leftleaning line appearing at this particular<00:03:34.159> location<00:03:34.560> on<00:03:34.799> the<00:03:35.040> screen.<00:03:35.760> So" + }, + { + "start": 215.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "particular location on the screen. So" + }, + { + "start": 216.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "particular location on the screen. So this<00:03:36.239> neuron,<00:03:36.640> this<00:03:36.799> individual<00:03:37.120> neuron<00:03:37.440> is" + }, + { + "start": 217.509, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this neuron, this individual neuron is" + }, + { + "start": 217.519, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this neuron, this individual neuron is like<00:03:37.680> a<00:03:37.760> geiger<00:03:38.239> counter<00:03:38.640> for<00:03:38.799> this<00:03:39.040> one" + }, + { + "start": 219.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like a geiger counter for this one" + }, + { + "start": 219.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like a geiger counter for this one visual<00:03:39.680> feature<00:03:40.080> detecting<00:03:40.480> that<00:03:40.720> one<00:03:40.879> visual" + }, + { + "start": 221.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "visual feature detecting that one visual" + }, + { + "start": 221.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "visual feature detecting that one visual feature.<00:03:42.239> And<00:03:42.480> other<00:03:42.720> neurons<00:03:43.280> detect" + }, + { + "start": 223.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "feature. And other neurons detect" + }, + { + "start": 223.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "feature. And other neurons detect detected<00:03:44.319> other<00:03:44.560> features<00:03:44.959> like<00:03:45.200> right" + }, + { + "start": 225.509, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "detected other features like right" + }, + { + "start": 225.519, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "detected other features like right leaning<00:03:45.840> lines<00:03:46.159> or<00:03:46.480> squares<00:03:46.879> or<00:03:47.200> colors.<00:03:48.080> And" + }, + { + "start": 228.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "leaning lines or squares or colors. And" + }, + { + "start": 228.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "leaning lines or squares or colors. And the<00:03:48.480> idea<00:03:48.720> was<00:03:48.959> that<00:03:49.040> other<00:03:49.280> neurons<00:03:49.599> spike<00:03:49.920> at" + }, + { + "start": 230.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the idea was that other neurons spike at" + }, + { + "start": 230.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the idea was that other neurons spike at different<00:03:50.239> things.<00:03:50.560> So<00:03:50.640> they<00:03:50.879> detect<00:03:51.280> other" + }, + { + "start": 231.509, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different things. So they detect other" + }, + { + "start": 231.519, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different things. So they detect other things.<00:03:52.080> they're<00:03:52.400> sending<00:03:52.799> different" + }, + { + "start": 233.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "things. they're sending different" + }, + { + "start": 233.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "things. they're sending different messages" + }, + { + "start": 235.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "messages" + }, + { + "start": 235.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "messages and<00:03:55.920> this<00:03:56.159> led<00:03:56.480> to<00:03:56.640> the<00:03:57.040> dominant<00:03:57.599> model<00:03:58.239> in" + }, + { + "start": 238.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and this led to the dominant model in" + }, + { + "start": 238.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and this led to the dominant model in the<00:03:58.640> late<00:03:58.959> 20th<00:03:59.360> century<00:04:00.159> of<00:04:00.560> of<00:04:00.879> the<00:04:01.040> brain" + }, + { + "start": 241.509, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the late 20th century of of the brain" + }, + { + "start": 241.519, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the late 20th century of of the brain and<00:04:01.760> that<00:04:02.000> is<00:04:02.159> connectionism." + }, + { + "start": 243.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and that is connectionism." + }, + { + "start": 243.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and that is connectionism. Uh<00:04:04.159> the<00:04:04.480> cortex<00:04:05.120> was<00:04:05.439> thought<00:04:05.599> to<00:04:05.760> be<00:04:05.920> wired" + }, + { + "start": 246.229, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Uh the cortex was thought to be wired" + }, + { + "start": 246.239, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Uh the cortex was thought to be wired like<00:04:06.400> a<00:04:06.640> giant<00:04:07.040> telegraph<00:04:07.599> system<00:04:08.319> that" + }, + { + "start": 248.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like a giant telegraph system that" + }, + { + "start": 248.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like a giant telegraph system that combines<00:04:09.120> signals.<00:04:10.000> So<00:04:10.159> the<00:04:10.400> spikes<00:04:10.879> travel" + }, + { + "start": 251.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "combines signals. So the spikes travel" + }, + { + "start": 251.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "combines signals. So the spikes travel down<00:04:11.519> these<00:04:12.000> telegraph<00:04:12.560> like<00:04:12.720> wires<00:04:13.040> and" + }, + { + "start": 253.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "down these telegraph like wires and" + }, + { + "start": 253.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "down these telegraph like wires and neurons<00:04:13.680> signal<00:04:14.000> one<00:04:14.239> another.<00:04:14.720> These<00:04:14.959> little" + }, + { + "start": 255.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons signal one another. These little" + }, + { + "start": 255.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons signal one another. These little information<00:04:15.680> processing<00:04:16.160> units<00:04:16.799> signal<00:04:17.199> one" + }, + { + "start": 257.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information processing units signal one" + }, + { + "start": 257.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information processing units signal one another<00:04:17.600> like<00:04:17.840> a<00:04:18.000> giant<00:04:18.320> telegraph<00:04:18.799> system." + }, + { + "start": 259.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "another like a giant telegraph system." + }, + { + "start": 260.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "another like a giant telegraph system. And<00:04:20.160> this<00:04:20.320> is<00:04:20.560> captured<00:04:20.959> here.<00:04:21.359> If<00:04:21.519> I<00:04:21.759> get<00:04:21.840> this" + }, + { + "start": 262.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And this is captured here. If I get this" + }, + { + "start": 262.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And this is captured here. If I get this right,<00:04:22.720> here's<00:04:23.120> here's<00:04:23.360> the<00:04:23.919> primary<00:04:24.400> visual" + }, + { + "start": 264.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "right, here's here's the primary visual" + }, + { + "start": 264.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "right, here's here's the primary visual cortex<00:04:25.199> at<00:04:25.360> the<00:04:25.520> back<00:04:25.600> of<00:04:25.759> the<00:04:25.919> brain.<00:04:26.720> And" + }, + { + "start": 266.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex at the back of the brain. And" + }, + { + "start": 266.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex at the back of the brain. And here's<00:04:27.199> the<00:04:27.520> um<00:04:28.000> edge<00:04:28.320> detectors<00:04:28.720> like<00:04:28.880> I" + }, + { + "start": 269.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "here's the um edge detectors like I" + }, + { + "start": 269.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "here's the um edge detectors like I showed<00:04:29.280> you<00:04:29.440> earlier<00:04:29.919> at<00:04:30.160> this<00:04:30.400> first<00:04:30.639> stage" + }, + { + "start": 270.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "showed you earlier at this first stage" + }, + { + "start": 270.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "showed you earlier at this first stage of<00:04:31.040> visual<00:04:31.440> processing.<00:04:32.240> There's<00:04:32.479> ner<00:04:32.720> here's" + }, + { + "start": 272.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of visual processing. There's ner here's" + }, + { + "start": 272.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of visual processing. There's ner here's a<00:04:33.120> visual<00:04:33.440> scene<00:04:33.759> here<00:04:33.919> of<00:04:34.080> these<00:04:34.320> this<00:04:34.560> kind" + }, + { + "start": 274.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a visual scene here of these this kind" + }, + { + "start": 274.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a visual scene here of these this kind of<00:04:34.880> bent<00:04:35.199> paper<00:04:35.600> clip.<00:04:36.240> And<00:04:36.479> the<00:04:36.639> idea<00:04:36.880> was" + }, + { + "start": 277.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of bent paper clip. And the idea was" + }, + { + "start": 277.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of bent paper clip. And the idea was that<00:04:37.360> individual<00:04:37.840> neurons<00:04:38.240> back<00:04:38.479> in<00:04:38.720> primary" + }, + { + "start": 279.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that individual neurons back in primary" + }, + { + "start": 279.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that individual neurons back in primary visual<00:04:39.440> cortex<00:04:40.160> detect<00:04:40.560> different<00:04:40.880> features" + }, + { + "start": 281.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "visual cortex detect different features" + }, + { + "start": 281.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "visual cortex detect different features of<00:04:42.000> this<00:04:42.400> uh<00:04:42.639> scene.<00:04:43.040> In<00:04:43.199> this<00:04:43.360> case,<00:04:43.840> the" + }, + { + "start": 284.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of this uh scene. In this case, the" + }, + { + "start": 284.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of this uh scene. In this case, the simplest<00:04:44.479> case<00:04:44.720> is<00:04:44.880> the<00:04:45.360> simple<00:04:46.160> line" + }, + { + "start": 286.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "simplest case is the simple line" + }, + { + "start": 286.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "simplest case is the simple line segments<00:04:46.960> of<00:04:47.199> different<00:04:47.440> orientations." + }, + { + "start": 289.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "segments of different orientations." + }, + { + "start": 289.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "segments of different orientations. And<00:04:49.520> then<00:04:49.680> those<00:04:49.919> edge<00:04:50.160> detectors<00:04:50.639> combine<00:04:51.040> to" + }, + { + "start": 291.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And then those edge detectors combine to" + }, + { + "start": 291.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And then those edge detectors combine to a<00:04:51.440> second<00:04:51.759> level<00:04:52.000> of<00:04:52.160> processing<00:04:52.800> where<00:04:53.120> they" + }, + { + "start": 293.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a second level of processing where they" + }, + { + "start": 293.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a second level of processing where they combine<00:04:53.600> their<00:04:53.840> activity<00:04:54.320> to<00:04:54.880> detectors<00:04:55.440> of" + }, + { + "start": 295.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "combine their activity to detectors of" + }, + { + "start": 295.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "combine their activity to detectors of longer<00:04:56.160> edges." + }, + { + "start": 297.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "longer edges." + }, + { + "start": 297.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "longer edges. And<00:04:58.080> then<00:04:58.320> those<00:04:58.880> longer<00:04:59.199> edge<00:04:59.440> detectors" + }, + { + "start": 299.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And then those longer edge detectors" + }, + { + "start": 299.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And then those longer edge detectors combine<00:05:00.240> their<00:05:00.479> signaling<00:05:00.880> and<00:05:01.120> you<00:05:01.280> get" + }, + { + "start": 301.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "combine their signaling and you get" + }, + { + "start": 301.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "combine their signaling and you get corner<00:05:01.840> detectors." + }, + { + "start": 303.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "corner detectors." + }, + { + "start": 303.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "corner detectors. Then<00:05:03.680> you<00:05:03.840> combine<00:05:04.560> more<00:05:04.800> and<00:05:05.040> more<00:05:05.280> and" + }, + { + "start": 305.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Then you combine more and more and" + }, + { + "start": 305.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Then you combine more and more and eventually<00:05:06.000> you<00:05:06.240> get<00:05:06.639> neurons<00:05:07.120> that<00:05:07.360> are<00:05:07.840> that" + }, + { + "start": 308.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "eventually you get neurons that are that" + }, + { + "start": 308.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "eventually you get neurons that are that are<00:05:08.240> only<00:05:08.560> spike<00:05:08.880> the<00:05:09.120> whole<00:05:09.280> images<00:05:09.680> or<00:05:09.840> whole" + }, + { + "start": 310.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are only spike the whole images or whole" + }, + { + "start": 310.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are only spike the whole images or whole things<00:05:10.400> like<00:05:10.639> faces<00:05:11.120> or<00:05:11.520> or<00:05:11.919> hands<00:05:12.320> and<00:05:12.960> stuff" + }, + { + "start": 313.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "things like faces or or hands and stuff" + }, + { + "start": 313.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "things like faces or or hands and stuff stuff<00:05:13.680> like<00:05:13.840> that.<00:05:14.720> And<00:05:15.039> because<00:05:15.280> there's<00:05:15.680> 20" + }, + { + "start": 315.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stuff like that. And because there's 20" + }, + { + "start": 316.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stuff like that. And because there's 20 billion<00:05:16.320> neurons<00:05:16.800> in<00:05:16.960> your<00:05:17.120> cortex,<00:05:17.680> the<00:05:17.840> idea" + }, + { + "start": 318.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "billion neurons in your cortex, the idea" + }, + { + "start": 318.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "billion neurons in your cortex, the idea was<00:05:18.160> that<00:05:18.400> if<00:05:18.560> you<00:05:18.639> combine<00:05:19.039> combine,<00:05:19.440> combine" + }, + { + "start": 319.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "was that if you combine combine, combine" + }, + { + "start": 319.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "was that if you combine combine, combine enough,<00:05:20.479> you<00:05:20.720> eventually<00:05:21.199> get<00:05:21.360> neurons<00:05:21.840> and" + }, + { + "start": 322.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "enough, you eventually get neurons and" + }, + { + "start": 322.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "enough, you eventually get neurons and circuits<00:05:22.880> specialized<00:05:23.520> for<00:05:23.840> peace,<00:05:24.160> love," + }, + { + "start": 324.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "circuits specialized for peace, love," + }, + { + "start": 324.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "circuits specialized for peace, love, and<00:05:24.560> understanding.<00:05:25.759> That's<00:05:26.000> the<00:05:26.160> way<00:05:26.240> we" + }, + { + "start": 326.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and understanding. That's the way we" + }, + { + "start": 326.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and understanding. That's the way we thought<00:05:26.560> about<00:05:26.639> the<00:05:26.880> brain<00:05:27.039> in<00:05:27.199> the<00:05:27.280> 20th" + }, + { + "start": 327.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thought about the brain in the 20th" + }, + { + "start": 327.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thought about the brain in the 20th century.<00:05:28.000> This<00:05:28.160> this<00:05:28.639> connectionism<00:05:29.520> and" + }, + { + "start": 329.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "century. This this connectionism and" + }, + { + "start": 329.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "century. This this connectionism and this<00:05:30.080> combining<00:05:30.560> of<00:05:30.800> signals<00:05:31.120> into<00:05:31.440> higher" + }, + { + "start": 331.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this combining of signals into higher" + }, + { + "start": 331.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this combining of signals into higher levels<00:05:32.160> of<00:05:32.639> specialization<00:05:33.360> and<00:05:33.600> complexity." + }, + { + "start": 334.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "levels of specialization and complexity." + }, + { + "start": 334.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "levels of specialization and complexity. And<00:05:34.960> this<00:05:35.199> may<00:05:35.360> be<00:05:35.520> familiar<00:05:35.919> to<00:05:36.080> you<00:05:36.240> because" + }, + { + "start": 336.469, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And this may be familiar to you because" + }, + { + "start": 336.479, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And this may be familiar to you because this<00:05:36.639> is<00:05:36.800> how<00:05:36.960> AI<00:05:37.440> kind<00:05:37.680> of<00:05:37.840> works.<00:05:38.639> Large" + }, + { + "start": 338.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this is how AI kind of works. Large" + }, + { + "start": 338.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this is how AI kind of works. Large language<00:05:39.360> models<00:05:39.680> are<00:05:39.919> trained<00:05:40.160> on<00:05:40.400> large" + }, + { + "start": 340.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "language models are trained on large" + }, + { + "start": 340.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "language models are trained on large data<00:05:40.960> sets<00:05:41.520> and<00:05:41.759> they<00:05:42.000> adjust<00:05:42.400> their" + }, + { + "start": 342.629, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "data sets and they adjust their" + }, + { + "start": 342.639, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "data sets and they adjust their connections,<00:05:43.120> their<00:05:43.360> associations<00:05:44.400> to" + }, + { + "start": 344.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections, their associations to" + }, + { + "start": 344.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections, their associations to capture<00:05:45.280> statistical<00:05:45.840> patterns<00:05:46.160> in<00:05:46.400> the" + }, + { + "start": 346.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "capture statistical patterns in the" + }, + { + "start": 346.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "capture statistical patterns in the data.<00:05:47.280> This<00:05:47.440> is<00:05:47.600> where<00:05:48.000> AI<00:05:48.479> got<00:05:48.639> this<00:05:48.960> idea" + }, + { + "start": 349.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "data. This is where AI got this idea" + }, + { + "start": 349.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "data. This is where AI got this idea from<00:05:49.600> from<00:05:49.919> the<00:05:50.080> from<00:05:50.479> how<00:05:50.960> we<00:05:51.199> thought<00:05:51.360> the" + }, + { + "start": 351.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "from from the from how we thought the" + }, + { + "start": 351.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "from from the from how we thought the brain<00:05:51.840> worked." + }, + { + "start": 353.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain worked." + }, + { + "start": 353.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain worked. But<00:05:53.919> starting<00:05:54.240> about<00:05:54.479> the<00:05:54.800> um<00:05:55.039> turn<00:05:55.199> of<00:05:55.440> this" + }, + { + "start": 355.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But starting about the um turn of this" + }, + { + "start": 355.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But starting about the um turn of this century,<00:05:56.320> a<00:05:56.560> discovery<00:05:57.120> challenged" + }, + { + "start": 357.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "century, a discovery challenged" + }, + { + "start": 357.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "century, a discovery challenged connectionism.<00:05:58.960> The<00:05:59.199> discovery<00:05:59.600> of" + }, + { + "start": 359.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connectionism. The discovery of" + }, + { + "start": 359.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connectionism. The discovery of multifunctional<00:06:00.639> neurons.<00:06:01.680> These<00:06:02.000> neurons" + }, + { + "start": 362.469, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "multifunctional neurons. These neurons" + }, + { + "start": 362.479, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "multifunctional neurons. These neurons rather<00:06:02.720> than<00:06:02.960> being<00:06:03.120> selective<00:06:03.600> for<00:06:04.000> one" + }, + { + "start": 364.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "rather than being selective for one" + }, + { + "start": 364.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "rather than being selective for one thing<00:06:04.560> indicated<00:06:05.039> by<00:06:05.199> these<00:06:05.440> single<00:06:05.759> colors" + }, + { + "start": 366.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thing indicated by these single colors" + }, + { + "start": 366.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thing indicated by these single colors here,<00:06:06.800> these<00:06:07.199> neurons<00:06:07.680> in<00:06:08.319> cortex,<00:06:09.280> they" + }, + { + "start": 369.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "here, these neurons in cortex, they" + }, + { + "start": 369.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "here, these neurons in cortex, they combined<00:06:10.319> different<00:06:10.880> features<00:06:11.680> in<00:06:12.000> seemingly" + }, + { + "start": 373.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "combined different features in seemingly" + }, + { + "start": 373.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "combined different features in seemingly ways<00:06:13.759> that<00:06:14.000> didn't<00:06:14.240> make<00:06:14.400> sense<00:06:14.639> from<00:06:14.880> a<00:06:15.039> from" + }, + { + "start": 375.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "ways that didn't make sense from a from" + }, + { + "start": 375.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "ways that didn't make sense from a from a<00:06:15.520> neuron<00:06:15.919> having<00:06:16.080> a<00:06:16.319> single<00:06:16.639> function.<00:06:17.520> Their" + }, + { + "start": 377.749, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a neuron having a single function. Their" + }, + { + "start": 377.759, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a neuron having a single function. Their spiking<00:06:18.080> of<00:06:18.240> these<00:06:18.400> neurons<00:06:18.800> reflected" + }, + { + "start": 379.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking of these neurons reflected" + }, + { + "start": 379.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking of these neurons reflected complex<00:06:19.840> nonlinear<00:06:20.560> combinations<00:06:21.759> of" + }, + { + "start": 382.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "complex nonlinear combinations of" + }, + { + "start": 382.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "complex nonlinear combinations of different<00:06:22.400> things<00:06:23.120> in<00:06:23.440> different" + }, + { + "start": 383.749, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different things in different" + }, + { + "start": 383.759, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different things in different situations." + }, + { + "start": 385.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "situations." + }, + { + "start": 386.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "situations. Okay,<00:06:26.319> as<00:06:26.560> a<00:06:26.720> result,<00:06:27.280> these<00:06:27.600> neurons<00:06:28.080> were" + }, + { + "start": 388.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Okay, as a result, these neurons were" + }, + { + "start": 388.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Okay, as a result, these neurons were multifunctional.<00:06:29.120> They<00:06:29.199> didn't<00:06:29.360> just<00:06:29.600> do<00:06:29.759> one" + }, + { + "start": 390.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "multifunctional. They didn't just do one" + }, + { + "start": 390.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "multifunctional. They didn't just do one thing<00:06:30.240> and<00:06:30.479> send<00:06:30.720> one<00:06:31.039> message.<00:06:31.680> They<00:06:32.000> sent" + }, + { + "start": 392.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thing and send one message. They sent" + }, + { + "start": 392.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thing and send one message. They sent different<00:06:32.639> message<00:06:32.960> in<00:06:33.199> different" + }, + { + "start": 393.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different message in different" + }, + { + "start": 393.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different message in different situations." + }, + { + "start": 395.189, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "situations." + }, + { + "start": 395.199, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "situations. And<00:06:35.360> what<00:06:35.600> that<00:06:35.759> means<00:06:36.000> is<00:06:36.080> that<00:06:36.319> cortex<00:06:37.120> is<00:06:37.360> a" + }, + { + "start": 397.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And what that means is that cortex is a" + }, + { + "start": 397.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And what that means is that cortex is a web<00:06:37.840> of<00:06:38.240> overlapping<00:06:38.880> multifunctional" + }, + { + "start": 399.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "web of overlapping multifunctional" + }, + { + "start": 399.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "web of overlapping multifunctional networks<00:06:40.560> that<00:06:40.880> constantly<00:06:41.360> interact.<00:06:41.840> Not<00:06:42.000> a" + }, + { + "start": 402.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "networks that constantly interact. Not a" + }, + { + "start": 402.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "networks that constantly interact. Not a collection<00:06:42.479> of<00:06:42.720> specialized<00:06:43.360> parts<00:06:43.680> like<00:06:43.840> we" + }, + { + "start": 403.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "collection of specialized parts like we" + }, + { + "start": 404.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "collection of specialized parts like we thought<00:06:44.160> or<00:06:44.479> specialized<00:06:45.039> circuits.<00:06:46.160> So<00:06:46.560> the" + }, + { + "start": 406.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thought or specialized circuits. So the" + }, + { + "start": 406.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thought or specialized circuits. So the cortex<00:06:47.199> didn't<00:06:47.360> seem<00:06:47.520> to<00:06:47.600> be<00:06:47.759> specialized" + }, + { + "start": 408.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex didn't seem to be specialized" + }, + { + "start": 408.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex didn't seem to be specialized like<00:06:48.479> this<00:06:48.800> but<00:06:48.880> we<00:06:49.120> like<00:06:49.280> we<00:06:49.440> thought<00:06:49.759> the" + }, + { + "start": 409.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like this but we like we thought the" + }, + { + "start": 409.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like this but we like we thought the 20th<00:06:50.240> century.<00:06:50.960> It<00:06:51.120> was<00:06:51.280> more<00:06:51.600> like<00:06:51.840> this.<00:06:52.319> a" + }, + { + "start": 412.629, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "20th century. It was more like this. a" + }, + { + "start": 412.639, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "20th century. It was more like this. a collection<00:06:52.880> of<00:06:53.199> overlapping<00:06:53.759> networks<00:06:54.240> or" + }, + { + "start": 414.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "collection of overlapping networks or" + }, + { + "start": 414.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "collection of overlapping networks or individual<00:06:54.880> neurons<00:06:55.360> participate<00:06:55.840> in" + }, + { + "start": 416.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "individual neurons participate in" + }, + { + "start": 416.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "individual neurons participate in multiple<00:06:56.639> different<00:06:56.960> networks<00:06:57.759> and<00:06:58.080> they" + }, + { + "start": 418.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "multiple different networks and they" + }, + { + "start": 418.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "multiple different networks and they change<00:06:58.479> their<00:06:58.720> network<00:06:59.039> participation<00:07:00.240> in" + }, + { + "start": 420.469, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "change their network participation in" + }, + { + "start": 420.479, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "change their network participation in different<00:07:00.800> situations." + }, + { + "start": 422.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different situations." + }, + { + "start": 422.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different situations. Now<00:07:02.560> I'm<00:07:02.720> just<00:07:02.880> for<00:07:03.039> a<00:07:03.120> moment<00:07:03.360> I'm<00:07:03.520> going<00:07:03.520> to" + }, + { + "start": 423.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now I'm just for a moment I'm going to" + }, + { + "start": 423.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now I'm just for a moment I'm going to take<00:07:03.759> a<00:07:03.919> little<00:07:04.080> bit<00:07:04.240> of<00:07:04.319> a<00:07:04.560> detour<00:07:04.960> here<00:07:05.120> and" + }, + { + "start": 425.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "take a little bit of a detour here and" + }, + { + "start": 425.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "take a little bit of a detour here and explain<00:07:05.680> to<00:07:05.840> you<00:07:05.919> a<00:07:06.000> little<00:07:06.080> bit<00:07:06.160> about<00:07:06.319> the" + }, + { + "start": 426.469, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "explain to you a little bit about the" + }, + { + "start": 426.479, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "explain to you a little bit about the property<00:07:06.720> of<00:07:06.880> mix<00:07:07.280> activity<00:07:07.599> because<00:07:07.759> it" + }, + { + "start": 427.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "property of mix activity because it" + }, + { + "start": 428.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "property of mix activity because it really<00:07:08.160> is<00:07:08.319> key.<00:07:08.880> Your<00:07:09.120> cortex<00:07:09.599> is<00:07:09.759> full<00:07:09.919> of" + }, + { + "start": 430.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "really is key. Your cortex is full of" + }, + { + "start": 430.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "really is key. Your cortex is full of these<00:07:10.240> neurons<00:07:11.039> and<00:07:11.280> they<00:07:11.520> form<00:07:11.840> a<00:07:12.080> core" + }, + { + "start": 432.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these neurons and they form a core" + }, + { + "start": 432.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these neurons and they form a core computational<00:07:14.000> strategy<00:07:14.479> that<00:07:14.960> of<00:07:15.199> your" + }, + { + "start": 435.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computational strategy that of your" + }, + { + "start": 435.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computational strategy that of your cortex." + }, + { + "start": 436.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex." + }, + { + "start": 436.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex. So<00:07:17.120> here's<00:07:17.360> an<00:07:17.520> example<00:07:17.680> of<00:07:17.759> mixed" + }, + { + "start": 437.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So here's an example of mixed" + }, + { + "start": 438.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So here's an example of mixed selectivity<00:07:18.479> neurons.<00:07:18.960> First,<00:07:19.120> we'll<00:07:19.360> start" + }, + { + "start": 439.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "selectivity neurons. First, we'll start" + }, + { + "start": 439.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "selectivity neurons. First, we'll start with<00:07:19.599> a<00:07:19.840> 20th<00:07:20.240> century<00:07:20.560> model,<00:07:20.800> the" + }, + { + "start": 441.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "with a 20th century model, the" + }, + { + "start": 441.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "with a 20th century model, the specialized<00:07:21.599> neurons.<00:07:22.479> And<00:07:22.639> here's<00:07:22.960> a<00:07:23.120> simple" + }, + { + "start": 443.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "specialized neurons. And here's a simple" + }, + { + "start": 443.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "specialized neurons. And here's a simple task.<00:07:24.080> You<00:07:24.240> have<00:07:24.400> the<00:07:24.639> subject.<00:07:25.360> In<00:07:25.599> our<00:07:25.759> case," + }, + { + "start": 445.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "task. You have the subject. In our case," + }, + { + "start": 445.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "task. You have the subject. In our case, we<00:07:26.160> use<00:07:26.319> non-human<00:07:26.880> primates,<00:07:27.440> monkeys.<00:07:28.479> We" + }, + { + "start": 448.629, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we use non-human primates, monkeys. We" + }, + { + "start": 448.639, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we use non-human primates, monkeys. We have<00:07:28.800> the<00:07:29.039> subject.<00:07:29.440> I<00:07:29.680> hope<00:07:29.759> you<00:07:29.919> guys<00:07:30.080> can" + }, + { + "start": 450.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have the subject. I hope you guys can" + }, + { + "start": 450.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have the subject. I hope you guys can see<00:07:30.319> my<00:07:30.560> cursor.<00:07:30.960> Can<00:07:31.120> you<00:07:31.360> give<00:07:31.440> me<00:07:31.520> a<00:07:31.680> thumbs" + }, + { + "start": 451.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "see my cursor. Can you give me a thumbs" + }, + { + "start": 451.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "see my cursor. Can you give me a thumbs up<00:07:32.000> if<00:07:32.240> you<00:07:32.319> can?<00:07:32.560> Good.<00:07:33.360> Um,<00:07:34.400> in<00:07:34.560> this<00:07:34.800> simple" + }, + { + "start": 455.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "up if you can? Good. Um, in this simple" + }, + { + "start": 455.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "up if you can? Good. Um, in this simple task,<00:07:35.360> the<00:07:35.520> animal<00:07:35.840> sees<00:07:36.160> two<00:07:36.319> objects<00:07:36.639> in<00:07:36.800> a" + }, + { + "start": 457.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "task, the animal sees two objects in a" + }, + { + "start": 457.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "task, the animal sees two objects in a row.<00:07:37.520> This<00:07:37.759> case,<00:07:37.919> a<00:07:38.160> butterfly<00:07:39.039> and<00:07:39.280> a<00:07:39.440> and<00:07:39.680> a" + }, + { + "start": 459.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "row. This case, a butterfly and a and a" + }, + { + "start": 460.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "row. This case, a butterfly and a and a um<00:07:40.400> and<00:07:40.560> a<00:07:40.960> um<00:07:41.759> padlock.<00:07:42.639> Then<00:07:42.880> after<00:07:43.120> a<00:07:43.280> short" + }, + { + "start": 463.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um and a um padlock. Then after a short" + }, + { + "start": 463.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um and a um padlock. Then after a short memory<00:07:43.840> delay,<00:07:44.160> they're<00:07:44.319> given<00:07:44.639> three" + }, + { + "start": 464.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "memory delay, they're given three" + }, + { + "start": 464.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "memory delay, they're given three pictures<00:07:45.280> sim<00:07:45.680> three<00:07:45.919> objects" + }, + { + "start": 466.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "pictures sim three objects" + }, + { + "start": 466.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "pictures sim three objects simultaneously<00:07:47.280> and<00:07:47.440> they<00:07:47.680> have<00:07:47.759> to" + }, + { + "start": 467.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "simultaneously and they have to" + }, + { + "start": 467.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "simultaneously and they have to demonstrate<00:07:48.560> their<00:07:48.960> memory<00:07:49.680> for<00:07:49.919> the<00:07:50.080> order." + }, + { + "start": 470.469, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "demonstrate their memory for the order." + }, + { + "start": 470.479, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "demonstrate their memory for the order. These<00:07:50.720> two<00:07:50.960> pictures<00:07:51.199> are<00:07:51.360> in<00:07:51.520> their<00:07:51.680> order<00:07:52.240> by" + }, + { + "start": 472.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "These two pictures are in their order by" + }, + { + "start": 472.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "These two pictures are in their order by choosing<00:07:53.120> them<00:07:53.360> in<00:07:53.520> in<00:07:53.840> sequence.<00:07:54.319> So<00:07:54.479> first" + }, + { + "start": 474.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "choosing them in in sequence. So first" + }, + { + "start": 474.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "choosing them in in sequence. So first choose<00:07:55.039> the<00:07:55.199> butterfly,<00:07:56.000> then<00:07:56.240> choose<00:07:56.479> the" + }, + { + "start": 476.629, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "choose the butterfly, then choose the" + }, + { + "start": 476.639, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "choose the butterfly, then choose the padlock.<00:07:57.840> That's<00:07:58.319> uh<00:07:58.639> that's<00:07:58.960> because<00:07:59.199> that's" + }, + { + "start": 479.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "padlock. That's uh that's because that's" + }, + { + "start": 479.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "padlock. That's uh that's because that's what<00:07:59.599> the<00:07:59.759> the<00:08:00.000> animal<00:08:00.319> just<00:08:00.560> saw.<00:08:01.360> Now" + }, + { + "start": 481.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what the the animal just saw. Now" + }, + { + "start": 481.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what the the animal just saw. Now according<00:08:01.919> to<00:08:02.000> the<00:08:02.160> 20th<00:08:02.479> century<00:08:02.879> model," + }, + { + "start": 483.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "according to the 20th century model," + }, + { + "start": 483.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "according to the 20th century model, what<00:08:03.520> should<00:08:03.759> happen<00:08:04.400> is<00:08:04.720> you<00:08:04.879> should<00:08:05.120> find" + }, + { + "start": 485.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what should happen is you should find" + }, + { + "start": 485.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what should happen is you should find some<00:08:05.599> neurons<00:08:06.080> that<00:08:06.879> are<00:08:07.120> selective.<00:08:07.840> They" + }, + { + "start": 488.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "some neurons that are selective. They" + }, + { + "start": 488.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "some neurons that are selective. They spike<00:08:08.639> selectively<00:08:09.199> to<00:08:09.440> different<00:08:09.599> objects." + }, + { + "start": 489.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spike selectively to different objects." + }, + { + "start": 490.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spike selectively to different objects. So<00:08:10.240> here's<00:08:10.400> a<00:08:10.560> neuron<00:08:10.879> that<00:08:11.680> spikes<00:08:12.319> the<00:08:12.639> most" + }, + { + "start": 492.869, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So here's a neuron that spikes the most" + }, + { + "start": 492.879, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So here's a neuron that spikes the most to<00:08:13.039> the<00:08:13.199> padlock<00:08:14.000> and<00:08:14.240> the<00:08:14.400> least<00:08:14.639> to<00:08:14.879> the<00:08:15.199> this" + }, + { + "start": 495.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to the padlock and the least to the this" + }, + { + "start": 495.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to the padlock and the least to the this is<00:08:15.520> neural<00:08:16.000> activity<00:08:16.479> spiking<00:08:16.960> activity<00:08:17.360> on" + }, + { + "start": 497.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is neural activity spiking activity on" + }, + { + "start": 497.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is neural activity spiking activity on the<00:08:17.680> x-<00:08:17.919> axis<00:08:18.639> time<00:08:18.960> on<00:08:19.120> the<00:08:19.280> x-<00:08:19.520> axis.<00:08:20.160> The" + }, + { + "start": 500.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the x- axis time on the x- axis. The" + }, + { + "start": 500.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the x- axis time on the x- axis. The gray<00:08:20.639> is<00:08:20.879> when<00:08:21.039> you're<00:08:21.199> presenting<00:08:21.599> these" + }, + { + "start": 501.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "gray is when you're presenting these" + }, + { + "start": 501.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "gray is when you're presenting these objects.<00:08:22.560> And<00:08:22.720> according<00:08:23.039> to<00:08:23.199> 20th<00:08:23.440> century" + }, + { + "start": 503.749, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "objects. And according to 20th century" + }, + { + "start": 503.759, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "objects. And according to 20th century model,<00:08:24.080> you<00:08:24.240> have<00:08:24.319> a<00:08:24.479> neuron.<00:08:24.800> This<00:08:24.960> is<00:08:25.039> a" + }, + { + "start": 505.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "model, you have a neuron. This is a" + }, + { + "start": 505.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "model, you have a neuron. This is a single<00:08:25.599> neuron<00:08:26.080> here<00:08:26.479> that<00:08:26.800> responds<00:08:27.280> most<00:08:27.520> to" + }, + { + "start": 507.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "single neuron here that responds most to" + }, + { + "start": 507.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "single neuron here that responds most to the<00:08:27.840> padlock<00:08:28.800> responds<00:08:30.160> um<00:08:30.400> spikes<00:08:31.280> at<00:08:31.520> a" + }, + { + "start": 511.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the padlock responds um spikes at a" + }, + { + "start": 511.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the padlock responds um spikes at a medium<00:08:32.000> level<00:08:32.320> to<00:08:32.479> the<00:08:32.719> flower<00:08:33.519> and<00:08:33.680> the<00:08:33.919> least" + }, + { + "start": 514.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "medium level to the flower and the least" + }, + { + "start": 514.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "medium level to the flower and the least to<00:08:34.240> the<00:08:34.399> butterfly.<00:08:35.200> And<00:08:35.440> this<00:08:35.599> neuron<00:08:36.000> will" + }, + { + "start": 516.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to the butterfly. And this neuron will" + }, + { + "start": 516.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to the butterfly. And this neuron will always<00:08:36.560> give<00:08:36.800> the<00:08:37.039> same<00:08:37.200> message<00:08:37.599> every<00:08:37.839> time" + }, + { + "start": 517.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "always give the same message every time" + }, + { + "start": 518.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "always give the same message every time it<00:08:38.159> sees<00:08:38.479> a<00:08:38.640> butterfly<00:08:39.279> or<00:08:39.519> a<00:08:39.680> padlock<00:08:40.240> or<00:08:40.479> a" + }, + { + "start": 520.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it sees a butterfly or a padlock or a" + }, + { + "start": 520.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it sees a butterfly or a padlock or a flower.<00:08:41.200> Never<00:08:41.519> changes.<00:08:42.479> And<00:08:42.640> you<00:08:42.800> might" + }, + { + "start": 523.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "flower. Never changes. And you might" + }, + { + "start": 523.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "flower. Never changes. And you might find<00:08:43.200> some<00:08:43.440> other<00:08:43.680> neurons<00:08:44.159> that<00:08:44.320> just<00:08:44.480> keep" + }, + { + "start": 524.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "find some other neurons that just keep" + }, + { + "start": 524.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "find some other neurons that just keep track<00:08:44.880> of<00:08:44.959> the<00:08:45.120> order<00:08:45.360> of<00:08:45.440> the<00:08:45.600> objects." + }, + { + "start": 525.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "track of the order of the objects." + }, + { + "start": 526.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "track of the order of the objects. They're<00:08:46.320> pure<00:08:47.200> some<00:08:47.440> neurons<00:08:47.839> that<00:08:47.920> will" + }, + { + "start": 528.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "They're pure some neurons that will" + }, + { + "start": 528.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "They're pure some neurons that will respond<00:08:48.480> more<00:08:48.959> when<00:08:49.360> things<00:08:49.600> appear<00:08:50.000> first" + }, + { + "start": 530.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "respond more when things appear first" + }, + { + "start": 530.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "respond more when things appear first and<00:08:51.040> less<00:08:51.200> when<00:08:51.440> things<00:08:51.600> appear<00:08:52.000> second." + }, + { + "start": 532.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and less when things appear second." + }, + { + "start": 532.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and less when things appear second. Other<00:08:52.800> neurons<00:08:53.200> that<00:08:53.360> do<00:08:53.440> the<00:08:53.600> opposite." + }, + { + "start": 534.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Other neurons that do the opposite." + }, + { + "start": 534.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Other neurons that do the opposite. That's<00:08:54.560> what<00:08:54.720> the<00:08:54.880> 20th<00:08:55.200> century<00:08:55.600> model" + }, + { + "start": 535.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "That's what the 20th century model" + }, + { + "start": 535.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "That's what the 20th century model predicted.<00:08:57.040> We<00:08:57.279> did<00:08:57.440> this<00:08:57.680> experiment<00:08:58.160> and" + }, + { + "start": 538.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "predicted. We did this experiment and" + }, + { + "start": 538.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "predicted. We did this experiment and what<00:08:58.560> we<00:08:58.720> found<00:08:59.040> instead<00:08:59.680> was<00:08:59.920> these<00:09:00.240> mixed" + }, + { + "start": 540.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what we found instead was these mixed" + }, + { + "start": 540.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what we found instead was these mixed selectivity<00:09:01.040> multifunctional<00:09:01.760> neurons." + }, + { + "start": 542.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "selectivity multifunctional neurons." + }, + { + "start": 542.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "selectivity multifunctional neurons. Many<00:09:02.640> experiments<00:09:03.120> have<00:09:03.279> been<00:09:03.440> done<00:09:03.600> since<00:09:04.080> in" + }, + { + "start": 544.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Many experiments have been done since in" + }, + { + "start": 544.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Many experiments have been done since in the<00:09:04.399> past<00:09:04.560> 20<00:09:04.800> years<00:09:05.040> or<00:09:05.200> so.<00:09:05.920> And<00:09:06.080> what<00:09:06.320> you" + }, + { + "start": 546.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the past 20 years or so. And what you" + }, + { + "start": 546.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the past 20 years or so. And what you find<00:09:06.560> is<00:09:06.720> you<00:09:06.880> find<00:09:07.120> neurons<00:09:08.240> are" + }, + { + "start": 548.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "find is you find neurons are" + }, + { + "start": 548.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "find is you find neurons are multipplexing<00:09:09.360> combinations<00:09:09.920> of<00:09:10.160> factors." + }, + { + "start": 550.949, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "multipplexing combinations of factors." + }, + { + "start": 550.959, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "multipplexing combinations of factors. So<00:09:11.200> this<00:09:11.440> neuron<00:09:11.839> we<00:09:12.000> I've<00:09:12.399> illustrated<00:09:12.720> here" + }, + { + "start": 553.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So this neuron we I've illustrated here" + }, + { + "start": 553.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So this neuron we I've illustrated here is<00:09:13.519> responding<00:09:14.000> most<00:09:14.320> to<00:09:14.480> the<00:09:14.640> padlock<00:09:15.360> and" + }, + { + "start": 555.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is responding most to the padlock and" + }, + { + "start": 555.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is responding most to the padlock and least<00:09:15.920> to<00:09:16.080> the<00:09:16.240> butterfly.<00:09:16.720> Most<00:09:16.959> spikes<00:09:17.360> to" + }, + { + "start": 557.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "least to the butterfly. Most spikes to" + }, + { + "start": 557.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "least to the butterfly. Most spikes to the<00:09:17.600> padlock<00:09:18.000> and<00:09:18.160> least<00:09:18.399> spikes<00:09:18.720> to<00:09:18.880> the" + }, + { + "start": 559.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the padlock and least spikes to the" + }, + { + "start": 559.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the padlock and least spikes to the butterfly<00:09:19.920> when<00:09:20.080> the<00:09:20.240> but<00:09:20.480> when<00:09:20.640> when<00:09:20.959> those" + }, + { + "start": 561.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "butterfly when the but when when those" + }, + { + "start": 561.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "butterfly when the but when when those objects<00:09:21.600> appear<00:09:21.920> first.<00:09:22.720> But<00:09:22.880> when<00:09:23.120> when" + }, + { + "start": 563.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "objects appear first. But when when" + }, + { + "start": 563.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "objects appear first. But when when those<00:09:23.600> objects<00:09:23.920> appear<00:09:24.320> second,<00:09:24.959> they<00:09:25.200> show" + }, + { + "start": 565.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "those objects appear second, they show" + }, + { + "start": 565.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "those objects appear second, they show different<00:09:25.680> patterns<00:09:26.000> of<00:09:26.160> spiking.<00:09:26.560> Now<00:09:26.720> this" + }, + { + "start": 566.949, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different patterns of spiking. Now this" + }, + { + "start": 566.959, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different patterns of spiking. Now this neuron<00:09:27.200> is<00:09:27.360> spiking<00:09:27.760> most<00:09:28.000> to<00:09:28.160> the<00:09:28.320> butterfly" + }, + { + "start": 568.949, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuron is spiking most to the butterfly" + }, + { + "start": 568.959, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuron is spiking most to the butterfly and<00:09:29.279> least<00:09:29.519> to<00:09:29.680> the<00:09:29.760> padlock.<00:09:30.720> And<00:09:30.880> you<00:09:31.120> see" + }, + { + "start": 571.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and least to the padlock. And you see" + }, + { + "start": 571.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and least to the padlock. And you see different<00:09:31.680> combinations<00:09:32.240> of<00:09:32.399> these<00:09:32.640> factors," + }, + { + "start": 573.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different combinations of these factors," + }, + { + "start": 573.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different combinations of these factors, these<00:09:33.279> neurons<00:09:34.320> seemingly<00:09:34.880> giving<00:09:35.279> different" + }, + { + "start": 575.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these neurons seemingly giving different" + }, + { + "start": 575.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these neurons seemingly giving different messages<00:09:36.399> in<00:09:36.640> diff<00:09:36.880> in<00:09:37.120> different<00:09:37.519> contexts." + }, + { + "start": 578.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "messages in diff in different contexts." + }, + { + "start": 578.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "messages in diff in different contexts. And<00:09:39.120> because<00:09:39.279> they<00:09:39.519> spike<00:09:39.839> at<00:09:40.080> different" + }, + { + "start": 580.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And because they spike at different" + }, + { + "start": 580.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And because they spike at different objects<00:09:40.560> in<00:09:40.800> different<00:09:41.200> orders,<00:09:41.760> different" + }, + { + "start": 582.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "objects in different orders, different" + }, + { + "start": 582.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "objects in different orders, different contexts,<00:09:42.800> these<00:09:43.120> neurons<00:09:43.600> are<00:09:43.839> doing<00:09:44.080> this" + }, + { + "start": 584.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "contexts, these neurons are doing this" + }, + { + "start": 584.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "contexts, these neurons are doing this multipplexing<00:09:45.040> of<00:09:45.279> different<00:09:45.519> factors.<00:09:46.720> And" + }, + { + "start": 586.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "multipplexing of different factors. And" + }, + { + "start": 586.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "multipplexing of different factors. And it<00:09:47.200> this<00:09:47.440> gives<00:09:47.600> them<00:09:47.839> flexibility.<00:09:48.399> It<00:09:48.560> means" + }, + { + "start": 588.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it this gives them flexibility. It means" + }, + { + "start": 588.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it this gives them flexibility. It means they're<00:09:49.040> spiking<00:09:49.440> is<00:09:49.680> context<00:09:50.160> dependent." + }, + { + "start": 590.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "they're spiking is context dependent." + }, + { + "start": 590.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "they're spiking is context dependent. These<00:09:51.120> neurons<00:09:51.440> are<00:09:51.600> doing<00:09:51.839> different" + }, + { + "start": 592.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "These neurons are doing different" + }, + { + "start": 592.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "These neurons are doing different functions<00:09:52.560> in<00:09:52.880> different<00:09:53.120> contexts.<00:09:54.000> And<00:09:54.240> if" + }, + { + "start": 594.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "functions in different contexts. And if" + }, + { + "start": 594.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "functions in different contexts. And if you<00:09:54.560> had<00:09:54.880> one<00:09:55.200> word<00:09:55.440> to<00:09:55.760> describe<00:09:56.399> cognition," + }, + { + "start": 597.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you had one word to describe cognition," + }, + { + "start": 597.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you had one word to describe cognition, it<00:09:57.600> would<00:09:57.760> be<00:09:58.000> context<00:09:58.640> dependent<00:09:59.120> behavior." + }, + { + "start": 599.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it would be context dependent behavior." + }, + { + "start": 599.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it would be context dependent behavior. flexibility.<00:10:00.880> Our<00:10:01.200> brains<00:10:01.680> don't<00:10:01.920> do<00:10:02.160> the" + }, + { + "start": 602.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "flexibility. Our brains don't do the" + }, + { + "start": 602.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "flexibility. Our brains don't do the same<00:10:02.640> thing<00:10:03.040> every<00:10:03.440> time<00:10:03.680> to<00:10:03.920> the<00:10:04.080> same<00:10:04.240> input." + }, + { + "start": 604.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "same thing every time to the same input." + }, + { + "start": 604.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "same thing every time to the same input. We're<00:10:04.959> not<00:10:05.120> like<00:10:05.279> thermostats.<00:10:06.399> We<00:10:06.640> behave" + }, + { + "start": 607.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "We're not like thermostats. We behave" + }, + { + "start": 607.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "We're not like thermostats. We behave differently<00:10:07.360> in<00:10:07.680> restaurants<00:10:08.480> than<00:10:08.720> we<00:10:08.880> might" + }, + { + "start": 609.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "differently in restaurants than we might" + }, + { + "start": 609.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "differently in restaurants than we might at<00:10:09.200> a<00:10:09.360> picnic.<00:10:10.000> We<00:10:10.320> we<00:10:10.320> we<00:10:10.720> we<00:10:11.360> u<00:10:11.680> behave" + }, + { + "start": 612.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "at a picnic. We we we we u behave" + }, + { + "start": 612.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "at a picnic. We we we we u behave differently<00:10:12.399> when<00:10:12.640> we're<00:10:12.800> sitting<00:10:13.040> down<00:10:13.200> to<00:10:13.360> a" + }, + { + "start": 613.509, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "differently when we're sitting down to a" + }, + { + "start": 613.519, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "differently when we're sitting down to a lecture<00:10:13.920> versus<00:10:14.240> a<00:10:14.480> concert<00:10:14.880> hall.<00:10:15.519> Our<00:10:15.760> our" + }, + { + "start": 615.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "lecture versus a concert hall. Our our" + }, + { + "start": 616.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "lecture versus a concert hall. Our our behavior<00:10:16.320> is<00:10:16.560> all<00:10:16.720> context<00:10:17.200> dependent.<00:10:17.839> And" + }, + { + "start": 617.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "behavior is all context dependent. And" + }, + { + "start": 618.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "behavior is all context dependent. And that's<00:10:18.240> what<00:10:18.480> cognition<00:10:18.959> is<00:10:19.200> all<00:10:19.360> about.<00:10:19.760> And" + }, + { + "start": 619.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's what cognition is all about. And" + }, + { + "start": 619.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's what cognition is all about. And these<00:10:20.160> neurons<00:10:20.560> seem<00:10:20.800> to<00:10:20.959> be<00:10:21.040> the<00:10:21.279> embodiment" + }, + { + "start": 622.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these neurons seem to be the embodiment" + }, + { + "start": 622.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these neurons seem to be the embodiment of<00:10:22.640> that<00:10:22.959> cognitive<00:10:23.519> flexibility,<00:10:24.079> that" + }, + { + "start": 624.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of that cognitive flexibility, that" + }, + { + "start": 624.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of that cognitive flexibility, that context<00:10:24.800> dependent<00:10:25.200> behavior<00:10:25.600> of<00:10:25.920> cognition." + }, + { + "start": 627.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context dependent behavior of cognition." + }, + { + "start": 627.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context dependent behavior of cognition. And<00:10:28.000> this<00:10:28.240> skin<00:10:28.480> this<00:10:28.720> makes<00:10:28.880> them" + }, + { + "start": 629.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And this skin this makes them" + }, + { + "start": 629.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And this skin this makes them multifunctional.<00:10:30.160> And<00:10:30.399> what<00:10:30.640> my<00:10:30.880> colleagues" + }, + { + "start": 631.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "multifunctional. And what my colleagues" + }, + { + "start": 631.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "multifunctional. And what my colleagues Madi<00:10:31.680> Regati<00:10:32.240> and<00:10:32.320> Safano<00:10:32.880> Fusi<00:10:33.360> did<00:10:33.760> using<00:10:34.160> a" + }, + { + "start": 634.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Madi Regati and Safano Fusi did using a" + }, + { + "start": 634.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Madi Regati and Safano Fusi did using a data<00:10:34.720> collected<00:10:35.120> by<00:10:35.279> Melissa<00:10:35.760> Warden<00:10:36.079> who's" + }, + { + "start": 636.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "data collected by Melissa Warden who's" + }, + { + "start": 636.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "data collected by Melissa Warden who's in<00:10:36.480> my<00:10:36.640> laboratory<00:10:37.519> is<00:10:37.760> they<00:10:37.920> built" + }, + { + "start": 638.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in my laboratory is they built" + }, + { + "start": 638.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in my laboratory is they built computational<00:10:38.800> models<00:10:39.120> showing<00:10:39.440> this<00:10:39.600> mixed" + }, + { + "start": 639.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computational models showing this mixed" + }, + { + "start": 639.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computational models showing this mixed selectivity<00:10:40.480> property<00:10:41.040> is<00:10:41.360> critical<00:10:41.760> for" + }, + { + "start": 641.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "selectivity property is critical for" + }, + { + "start": 642.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "selectivity property is critical for cognition.<00:10:43.279> It<00:10:43.519> gives<00:10:43.680> the<00:10:43.920> brain<00:10:44.399> more" + }, + { + "start": 644.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cognition. It gives the brain more" + }, + { + "start": 644.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cognition. It gives the brain more computational<00:10:45.440> horsepower.<00:10:46.640> They<00:10:46.880> form<00:10:47.120> a" + }, + { + "start": 647.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computational horsepower. They form a" + }, + { + "start": 647.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computational horsepower. They form a nonlinear<00:10:48.800> highdimensional<00:10:49.760> computational" + }, + { + "start": 650.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "nonlinear highdimensional computational" + }, + { + "start": 650.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "nonlinear highdimensional computational space<00:10:50.959> that<00:10:51.200> allows<00:10:51.519> the<00:10:51.680> brain<00:10:51.920> to<00:10:52.079> solve" + }, + { + "start": 652.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "space that allows the brain to solve" + }, + { + "start": 652.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "space that allows the brain to solve more<00:10:52.640> complex<00:10:53.120> problems.<00:10:54.399> And<00:10:54.560> their" + }, + { + "start": 654.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "more complex problems. And their" + }, + { + "start": 654.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "more complex problems. And their flexibility<00:10:55.839> allows<00:10:56.240> the<00:10:56.399> brain<00:10:56.640> to<00:10:56.800> learn" + }, + { + "start": 657.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "flexibility allows the brain to learn" + }, + { + "start": 657.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "flexibility allows the brain to learn things<00:10:57.360> really<00:10:57.680> quickly.<00:10:58.880> And<00:10:59.200> they<00:10:59.519> increase" + }, + { + "start": 659.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "things really quickly. And they increase" + }, + { + "start": 659.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "things really quickly. And they increase the<00:10:59.920> storage<00:11:00.320> capacity<00:11:00.800> of<00:11:00.880> the<00:11:01.120> brain" + }, + { + "start": 661.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the storage capacity of the brain" + }, + { + "start": 661.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the storage capacity of the brain because<00:11:02.079> rather<00:11:02.480> than<00:11:03.600> all<00:11:03.839> your<00:11:04.079> memories" + }, + { + "start": 664.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "because rather than all your memories" + }, + { + "start": 664.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "because rather than all your memories and<00:11:04.800> knowledge<00:11:05.120> being<00:11:05.360> stored<00:11:05.600> in<00:11:05.839> a<00:11:06.000> few" + }, + { + "start": 666.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and knowledge being stored in a few" + }, + { + "start": 666.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and knowledge being stored in a few specialized<00:11:06.720> neurons,<00:11:07.519> they're<00:11:07.839> distributed" + }, + { + "start": 668.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "specialized neurons, they're distributed" + }, + { + "start": 668.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "specialized neurons, they're distributed across<00:11:08.800> many<00:11:09.279> multifunctional<00:11:10.079> neurons" + }, + { + "start": 670.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "across many multifunctional neurons" + }, + { + "start": 670.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "across many multifunctional neurons which<00:11:10.720> makes<00:11:10.959> the<00:11:11.120> brain<00:11:11.680> pretty<00:11:11.920> much" + }, + { + "start": 672.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "which makes the brain pretty much" + }, + { + "start": 672.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "which makes the brain pretty much capacity<00:11:12.720> unlimited." + }, + { + "start": 675.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "capacity unlimited." + }, + { + "start": 675.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "capacity unlimited. But<00:11:15.760> this<00:11:16.000> leads<00:11:16.240> us<00:11:16.399> to<00:11:16.560> our<00:11:16.720> biggest" + }, + { + "start": 677.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But this leads us to our biggest" + }, + { + "start": 677.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But this leads us to our biggest challenge.<00:11:17.920> How<00:11:18.160> does<00:11:18.399> the<00:11:18.560> brain<00:11:18.959> control" + }, + { + "start": 679.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "challenge. How does the brain control" + }, + { + "start": 679.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "challenge. How does the brain control such<00:11:19.519> a<00:11:19.760> complex<00:11:20.240> system<00:11:20.880> with<00:11:21.279> overlapping" + }, + { + "start": 681.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "such a complex system with overlapping" + }, + { + "start": 681.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "such a complex system with overlapping networks<00:11:22.480> and<00:11:22.720> these<00:11:23.040> multifunctional<00:11:23.920> mix" + }, + { + "start": 684.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "networks and these multifunctional mix" + }, + { + "start": 684.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "networks and these multifunctional mix selectivity<00:11:24.720> neurons<00:11:25.440> that<00:11:25.760> change<00:11:26.079> their" + }, + { + "start": 686.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "selectivity neurons that change their" + }, + { + "start": 686.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "selectivity neurons that change their membership<00:11:26.880> in<00:11:27.120> different<00:11:27.360> networks" + }, + { + "start": 687.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "membership in different networks" + }, + { + "start": 687.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "membership in different networks depending<00:11:28.160> on<00:11:28.320> the<00:11:28.560> situation<00:11:28.959> at<00:11:29.200> hand?<00:11:29.680> How" + }, + { + "start": 689.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "depending on the situation at hand? How" + }, + { + "start": 689.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "depending on the situation at hand? How can<00:11:30.079> the<00:11:30.240> brain<00:11:30.480> do<00:11:30.640> that?<00:11:31.200> And<00:11:31.440> this<00:11:31.600> is<00:11:31.680> a" + }, + { + "start": 691.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "can the brain do that? And this is a" + }, + { + "start": 691.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "can the brain do that? And this is a challenge<00:11:32.320> because<00:11:32.959> we<00:11:33.600> are<00:11:33.760> again<00:11:34.000> our" + }, + { + "start": 694.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "challenge because we are again our" + }, + { + "start": 694.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "challenge because we are again our brains<00:11:34.560> don't<00:11:34.720> just<00:11:34.959> respond<00:11:35.440> to<00:11:35.680> inputs<00:11:36.160> to" + }, + { + "start": 696.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brains don't just respond to inputs to" + }, + { + "start": 696.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brains don't just respond to inputs to the<00:11:36.399> out<00:11:36.640> from<00:11:36.880> the<00:11:37.040> outside<00:11:37.360> world.<00:11:38.079> We<00:11:38.399> have" + }, + { + "start": 698.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the out from the outside world. We have" + }, + { + "start": 698.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the out from the outside world. We have control<00:11:38.880> over<00:11:39.200> our<00:11:39.440> own<00:11:39.600> brains.<00:11:40.880> We<00:11:41.200> take" + }, + { + "start": 701.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "control over our own brains. We take" + }, + { + "start": 701.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "control over our own brains. We take charge<00:11:41.600> of<00:11:41.760> our<00:11:41.920> own<00:11:42.079> thoughts.<00:11:43.040> We<00:11:43.200> don't" + }, + { + "start": 703.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "charge of our own thoughts. We don't" + }, + { + "start": 703.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "charge of our own thoughts. We don't don't<00:11:43.839> just<00:11:44.000> react<00:11:44.320> to<00:11:44.480> inputs<00:11:44.800> like<00:11:44.959> a" + }, + { + "start": 705.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "don't just react to inputs like a" + }, + { + "start": 705.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "don't just react to inputs like a thermostat<00:11:45.600> or<00:11:45.760> like<00:11:45.920> AI<00:11:46.320> does.<00:11:46.560> by<00:11:46.720> way" + }, + { + "start": 707.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thermostat or like AI does. by way" + }, + { + "start": 707.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thermostat or like AI does. by way that's<00:11:47.200> what<00:11:47.279> AI<00:11:47.680> does.<00:11:47.920> AI<00:11:48.240> just<00:11:48.480> responds<00:11:48.800> to" + }, + { + "start": 708.949, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's what AI does. AI just responds to" + }, + { + "start": 708.959, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's what AI does. AI just responds to inputs.<00:11:49.360> It<00:11:49.519> has<00:11:49.600> no<00:11:49.839> internal<00:11:50.320> mild<00:11:51.120> internal" + }, + { + "start": 711.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "inputs. It has no internal mild internal" + }, + { + "start": 711.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "inputs. It has no internal mild internal monologue<00:11:52.079> like<00:11:52.320> we<00:11:52.560> do.<00:11:53.920> We<00:11:54.160> act<00:11:54.399> differently" + }, + { + "start": 714.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "monologue like we do. We act differently" + }, + { + "start": 714.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "monologue like we do. We act differently depending<00:11:55.120> on<00:11:55.279> the<00:11:55.440> situation.<00:11:56.000> This<00:11:56.160> is<00:11:56.240> the" + }, + { + "start": 716.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "depending on the situation. This is the" + }, + { + "start": 716.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "depending on the situation. This is the context<00:11:56.880> dependent<00:11:57.600> behavior<00:11:58.000> I<00:11:58.240> was<00:11:58.320> just" + }, + { + "start": 718.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context dependent behavior I was just" + }, + { + "start": 718.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context dependent behavior I was just telling<00:11:58.640> you<00:11:58.800> about.<00:11:59.680> And<00:11:59.839> we<00:12:00.079> make<00:12:00.240> goals<00:12:00.560> and" + }, + { + "start": 720.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "telling you about. And we make goals and" + }, + { + "start": 720.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "telling you about. And we make goals and set<00:12:00.959> plans.<00:12:01.279> I<00:12:01.519> can<00:12:01.760> choose<00:12:02.480> what<00:12:02.800> goal<00:12:03.040> I<00:12:03.279> want" + }, + { + "start": 723.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "set plans. I can choose what goal I want" + }, + { + "start": 723.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "set plans. I can choose what goal I want to<00:12:03.519> reach<00:12:03.680> in<00:12:03.839> the<00:12:04.000> future<00:12:04.160> and<00:12:04.399> make<00:12:04.560> plans<00:12:04.880> to" + }, + { + "start": 725.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to reach in the future and make plans to" + }, + { + "start": 725.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to reach in the future and make plans to get<00:12:05.200> there<00:12:05.360> and<00:12:05.600> then<00:12:06.160> ignore<00:12:06.560> things<00:12:06.720> in<00:12:06.959> the" + }, + { + "start": 727.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "get there and then ignore things in the" + }, + { + "start": 727.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "get there and then ignore things in the outside<00:12:07.440> world<00:12:07.680> that<00:12:07.839> count<00:12:08.160> that<00:12:08.320> that" + }, + { + "start": 728.949, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "outside world that count that that" + }, + { + "start": 728.959, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "outside world that count that that counteract<00:12:09.440> that<00:12:09.680> plan<00:12:09.920> in<00:12:10.079> order<00:12:10.160> to<00:12:10.320> get<00:12:10.480> to" + }, + { + "start": 730.629, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "counteract that plan in order to get to" + }, + { + "start": 730.639, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "counteract that plan in order to get to my<00:12:10.800> goal.<00:12:12.240> And<00:12:12.399> we<00:12:12.639> do<00:12:12.720> this<00:12:12.959> flexibly<00:12:13.440> to" + }, + { + "start": 733.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "my goal. And we do this flexibly to" + }, + { + "start": 733.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "my goal. And we do this flexibly to navigate<00:12:13.920> a<00:12:14.160> fast-paced<00:12:14.720> world." + }, + { + "start": 736.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "navigate a fast-paced world." + }, + { + "start": 736.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "navigate a fast-paced world. It<00:12:16.320> seems<00:12:16.639> impossibly<00:12:17.920> complex<00:12:18.320> to<00:12:18.480> build<00:12:18.639> a" + }, + { + "start": 738.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "It seems impossibly complex to build a" + }, + { + "start": 738.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "It seems impossibly complex to build a control<00:12:19.120> system<00:12:19.360> that<00:12:19.600> works<00:12:19.760> by" + }, + { + "start": 739.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "control system that works by" + }, + { + "start": 740.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "control system that works by connectionism.<00:12:21.120> Connectionism<00:12:21.920> may<00:12:22.160> work" + }, + { + "start": 742.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connectionism. Connectionism may work" + }, + { + "start": 742.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connectionism. Connectionism may work fine<00:12:22.639> for<00:12:22.880> storing<00:12:23.360> information<00:12:23.760> in<00:12:24.000> the" + }, + { + "start": 744.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fine for storing information in the" + }, + { + "start": 744.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fine for storing information in the brain,<00:12:24.399> for<00:12:24.639> baking<00:12:25.120> information<00:12:25.519> into<00:12:25.760> the" + }, + { + "start": 745.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain, for baking information into the" + }, + { + "start": 745.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain, for baking information into the brain,<00:12:26.480> but<00:12:26.720> in<00:12:26.959> order<00:12:27.040> to<00:12:27.200> do<00:12:27.279> all<00:12:27.440> this" + }, + { + "start": 747.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain, but in order to do all this" + }, + { + "start": 747.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain, but in order to do all this computation<00:12:28.320> allows<00:12:28.639> us<00:12:28.800> to<00:12:29.200> take<00:12:29.440> control<00:12:29.680> of" + }, + { + "start": 749.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation allows us to take control of" + }, + { + "start": 749.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation allows us to take control of our<00:12:29.920> own<00:12:30.079> thoughts.<00:12:30.639> How<00:12:30.800> does<00:12:31.040> that<00:12:31.279> work<00:12:31.600> if" + }, + { + "start": 751.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "our own thoughts. How does that work if" + }, + { + "start": 751.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "our own thoughts. How does that work if the<00:12:32.079> brain<00:12:32.320> only<00:12:32.560> works<00:12:32.800> by<00:12:33.120> connections," + }, + { + "start": 754.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the brain only works by connections," + }, + { + "start": 754.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the brain only works by connections, right?<00:12:34.959> It<00:12:35.120> would<00:12:35.360> require<00:12:35.839> on<00:12:36.079> the-ly" + }, + { + "start": 756.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "right? It would require on the-ly" + }, + { + "start": 756.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "right? It would require on the-ly subsecond<00:12:37.440> control<00:12:38.160> of<00:12:38.480> gazillions<00:12:39.120> of" + }, + { + "start": 759.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "subsecond control of gazillions of" + }, + { + "start": 759.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "subsecond control of gazillions of connections,<00:12:39.680> gazillions<00:12:40.160> of<00:12:40.320> synapses" + }, + { + "start": 760.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections, gazillions of synapses" + }, + { + "start": 760.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections, gazillions of synapses between<00:12:41.200> a<00:12:41.440> gazillion<00:12:41.920> neurons.<00:12:42.720> And<00:12:42.880> that" + }, + { + "start": 763.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "between a gazillion neurons. And that" + }, + { + "start": 763.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "between a gazillion neurons. And that just<00:12:43.279> seems<00:12:43.680> computationally<00:12:44.399> intractable." + }, + { + "start": 766.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "just seems computationally intractable." + }, + { + "start": 766.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "just seems computationally intractable. So<00:12:46.959> what's<00:12:47.200> the<00:12:47.440> solution?<00:12:48.800> A<00:12:49.040> number<00:12:49.200> of<00:12:49.360> us" + }, + { + "start": 769.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So what's the solution? A number of us" + }, + { + "start": 769.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So what's the solution? A number of us including<00:12:49.920> our<00:12:50.160> laboratory<00:12:50.720> have<00:12:50.959> come<00:12:51.200> to" + }, + { + "start": 771.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "including our laboratory have come to" + }, + { + "start": 771.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "including our laboratory have come to the<00:12:51.519> conclusion<00:12:51.920> that<00:12:52.160> that<00:12:52.480> the<00:12:53.040> electric" + }, + { + "start": 773.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the conclusion that that the electric" + }, + { + "start": 773.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the conclusion that that the electric fields<00:12:53.839> are<00:12:54.000> the<00:12:54.160> solution<00:12:54.399> to<00:12:54.639> this<00:12:54.880> problem." + }, + { + "start": 776.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fields are the solution to this problem." + }, + { + "start": 776.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fields are the solution to this problem. What<00:12:56.560> we<00:12:56.720> call<00:12:56.959> brain<00:12:57.200> waves.<00:12:57.600> Brain<00:12:57.839> waves" + }, + { + "start": 778.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "What we call brain waves. Brain waves" + }, + { + "start": 778.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "What we call brain waves. Brain waves are<00:12:58.320> rhythmic<00:12:58.720> fluctuations<00:12:59.279> in<00:12:59.519> the" + }, + { + "start": 779.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are rhythmic fluctuations in the" + }, + { + "start": 779.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are rhythmic fluctuations in the electric<00:13:00.000> field<00:13:00.320> surrounding<00:13:00.800> neurons.<00:13:01.680> When" + }, + { + "start": 781.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric field surrounding neurons. When" + }, + { + "start": 781.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric field surrounding neurons. When neurons<00:13:02.399> spike,<00:13:02.720> of<00:13:02.880> course,<00:13:03.040> they're" + }, + { + "start": 783.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons spike, of course, they're" + }, + { + "start": 783.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons spike, of course, they're existing<00:13:03.680> in<00:13:03.839> this<00:13:04.000> electrical<00:13:04.480> environment." + }, + { + "start": 785.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "existing in this electrical environment." + }, + { + "start": 785.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "existing in this electrical environment. When<00:13:05.519> they<00:13:05.680> spike,<00:13:06.000> they<00:13:06.240> cause<00:13:06.399> ripples<00:13:06.800> in" + }, + { + "start": 786.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "When they spike, they cause ripples in" + }, + { + "start": 786.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "When they spike, they cause ripples in the<00:13:07.040> electrical<00:13:07.440> fields<00:13:07.760> around<00:13:08.079> them.<00:13:08.639> and" + }, + { + "start": 788.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the electrical fields around them. and" + }, + { + "start": 788.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the electrical fields around them. and you<00:13:08.959> get<00:13:09.120> enough<00:13:09.360> spiking,<00:13:09.760> you<00:13:09.920> get<00:13:10.000> enough" + }, + { + "start": 790.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you get enough spiking, you get enough" + }, + { + "start": 790.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you get enough spiking, you get enough ripples<00:13:10.560> in<00:13:10.720> the<00:13:10.880> rhythmic<00:13:11.279> fluctuations<00:13:11.760> in" + }, + { + "start": 791.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "ripples in the rhythmic fluctuations in" + }, + { + "start": 791.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "ripples in the rhythmic fluctuations in the<00:13:12.079> electric<00:13:12.399> fields<00:13:12.959> and<00:13:13.200> they<00:13:13.440> turn<00:13:13.600> around" + }, + { + "start": 793.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the electric fields and they turn around" + }, + { + "start": 793.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the electric fields and they turn around and<00:13:13.920> they<00:13:14.160> influence<00:13:14.480> the<00:13:14.720> spiking.<00:13:15.760> A<00:13:15.920> lot<00:13:16.079> of" + }, + { + "start": 796.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and they influence the spiking. A lot of" + }, + { + "start": 796.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and they influence the spiking. A lot of you<00:13:16.320> may<00:13:16.560> be<00:13:16.720> familiar<00:13:17.120> with<00:13:17.360> with<00:13:17.680> brain" + }, + { + "start": 797.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you may be familiar with with brain" + }, + { + "start": 798.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you may be familiar with with brain waves.<00:13:18.480> There's<00:13:18.800> here's<00:13:19.040> a<00:13:19.200> recording<00:13:19.600> here" + }, + { + "start": 799.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves. There's here's a recording here" + }, + { + "start": 799.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves. There's here's a recording here on<00:13:19.920> the<00:13:20.079> left<00:13:20.240> is<00:13:20.480> a<00:13:20.800> cartoon<00:13:21.279> showing<00:13:22.000> EEG" + }, + { + "start": 802.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "on the left is a cartoon showing EEG" + }, + { + "start": 802.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "on the left is a cartoon showing EEG scalp<00:13:22.959> recordings<00:13:23.360> from<00:13:23.519> the<00:13:23.760> human<00:13:24.079> scalp." + }, + { + "start": 804.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "scalp recordings from the human scalp." + }, + { + "start": 804.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "scalp recordings from the human scalp. And<00:13:25.120> you<00:13:25.279> get<00:13:25.519> you<00:13:25.760> get<00:13:25.920> a<00:13:26.160> range<00:13:26.399> of<00:13:26.560> fre<00:13:26.880> the" + }, + { + "start": 807.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And you get you get a range of fre the" + }, + { + "start": 807.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And you get you get a range of fre the squiggly<00:13:27.440> lines<00:13:27.680> you<00:13:27.839> see<00:13:27.920> on<00:13:28.079> an<00:13:28.240> EEG<00:13:28.959> reflect" + }, + { + "start": 809.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "squiggly lines you see on an EEG reflect" + }, + { + "start": 809.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "squiggly lines you see on an EEG reflect a<00:13:29.519> summation<00:13:29.920> of<00:13:30.240> of<00:13:30.880> um<00:13:31.440> a<00:13:31.680> variet<00:13:32.000> a<00:13:32.240> wide" + }, + { + "start": 812.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a summation of of um a variet a wide" + }, + { + "start": 812.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a summation of of um a variet a wide band<00:13:33.120> of<00:13:33.519> of<00:13:33.519> of<00:13:33.760> of<00:13:34.720> rhythmic<00:13:35.120> oscillations" + }, + { + "start": 815.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "band of of of of rhythmic oscillations" + }, + { + "start": 815.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "band of of of of rhythmic oscillations in<00:13:35.920> the<00:13:36.079> brain<00:13:36.800> and<00:13:37.040> they're<00:13:37.279> grouped<00:13:37.519> into" + }, + { + "start": 817.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in the brain and they're grouped into" + }, + { + "start": 817.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in the brain and they're grouped into frequency<00:13:38.240> bands<00:13:38.639> loosely<00:13:39.040> associated<00:13:39.600> with" + }, + { + "start": 819.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequency bands loosely associated with" + }, + { + "start": 819.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequency bands loosely associated with different<00:13:40.160> behavioral<00:13:40.720> cognitive<00:13:41.120> states." + }, + { + "start": 821.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different behavioral cognitive states." + }, + { + "start": 821.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different behavioral cognitive states. So<00:13:42.000> when<00:13:42.240> your<00:13:42.399> brain<00:13:42.639> is<00:13:42.800> giving<00:13:43.120> high" + }, + { + "start": 823.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So when your brain is giving high" + }, + { + "start": 823.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So when your brain is giving high frequencies<00:13:44.000> like<00:13:44.240> 30<00:13:44.480> hertz<00:13:44.720> and<00:13:44.880> above" + }, + { + "start": 825.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequencies like 30 hertz and above" + }, + { + "start": 825.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequencies like 30 hertz and above gamma<00:13:45.920> means<00:13:46.240> you're<00:13:46.399> awake<00:13:46.720> and<00:13:46.959> alert.<00:13:47.760> Next" + }, + { + "start": 827.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "gamma means you're awake and alert. Next" + }, + { + "start": 828.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "gamma means you're awake and alert. Next down<00:13:48.320> beta<00:13:49.040> I'll<00:13:49.279> talk<00:13:49.360> about<00:13:49.519> beta.<00:13:49.920> This<00:13:50.079> is" + }, + { + "start": 830.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "down beta I'll talk about beta. This is" + }, + { + "start": 830.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "down beta I'll talk about beta. This is when<00:13:50.320> your<00:13:50.480> mind<00:13:50.720> is<00:13:50.959> concentrating.<00:13:51.680> when" + }, + { + "start": 831.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "when your mind is concentrating. when" + }, + { + "start": 831.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "when your mind is concentrating. when your<00:13:52.000> brain<00:13:52.160> is<00:13:52.240> concentrating.<00:13:52.720> I'll<00:13:52.959> talk" + }, + { + "start": 833.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your brain is concentrating. I'll talk" + }, + { + "start": 833.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your brain is concentrating. I'll talk about<00:13:53.200> that<00:13:53.360> in<00:13:53.519> a<00:13:53.680> moment.<00:13:54.399> And<00:13:54.560> also<00:13:54.880> alpha." + }, + { + "start": 835.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "about that in a moment. And also alpha." + }, + { + "start": 835.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "about that in a moment. And also alpha. And<00:13:55.600> then<00:13:55.760> you<00:13:55.839> get<00:13:55.920> down<00:13:56.160> to<00:13:56.240> lower" + }, + { + "start": 836.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And then you get down to lower" + }, + { + "start": 836.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And then you get down to lower frequencies<00:13:56.959> and<00:13:57.199> now<00:13:57.279> you're<00:13:57.519> more<00:13:57.760> relaxed." + }, + { + "start": 838.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequencies and now you're more relaxed." + }, + { + "start": 838.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequencies and now you're more relaxed. Eventually<00:13:59.040> you<00:13:59.199> get<00:13:59.440> to<00:13:59.600> delta<00:14:00.480> low" + }, + { + "start": 840.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Eventually you get to delta low" + }, + { + "start": 840.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Eventually you get to delta low frequencies<00:14:01.199> and<00:14:01.440> that's<00:14:01.600> when<00:14:01.760> you're" + }, + { + "start": 841.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequencies and that's when you're" + }, + { + "start": 841.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequencies and that's when you're sleeping<00:14:02.639> or<00:14:02.959> anesthetize,<00:14:03.600> which<00:14:03.760> I'll<00:14:04.000> also" + }, + { + "start": 844.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sleeping or anesthetize, which I'll also" + }, + { + "start": 844.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sleeping or anesthetize, which I'll also show<00:14:04.399> you<00:14:04.480> in<00:14:04.639> a<00:14:04.800> minute.<00:14:05.920> So<00:14:06.160> we<00:14:06.399> know<00:14:06.480> that" + }, + { + "start": 846.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "show you in a minute. So we know that" + }, + { + "start": 846.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "show you in a minute. So we know that these<00:14:06.959> these<00:14:07.519> um<00:14:07.680> oscillations,<00:14:08.399> these" + }, + { + "start": 848.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these these um oscillations, these" + }, + { + "start": 848.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these these um oscillations, these electric<00:14:09.279> field<00:14:09.600> oscillations,<00:14:10.320> brain<00:14:10.639> waves" + }, + { + "start": 851.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric field oscillations, brain waves" + }, + { + "start": 851.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric field oscillations, brain waves correlate<00:14:12.399> pretty<00:14:12.720> well<00:14:12.880> with<00:14:13.199> cognitive" + }, + { + "start": 853.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "correlate pretty well with cognitive" + }, + { + "start": 853.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "correlate pretty well with cognitive state<00:14:14.000> and<00:14:14.320> consciousness." + }, + { + "start": 855.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "state and consciousness." + }, + { + "start": 855.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "state and consciousness. And<00:14:16.000> they<00:14:16.320> were<00:14:16.480> the<00:14:16.720> first<00:14:16.880> electrical" + }, + { + "start": 857.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And they were the first electrical" + }, + { + "start": 857.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And they were the first electrical signal<00:14:17.839> measured<00:14:18.160> from<00:14:18.320> the<00:14:18.480> brain<00:14:18.720> before<00:14:18.959> we" + }, + { + "start": 859.189, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "signal measured from the brain before we" + }, + { + "start": 859.199, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "signal measured from the brain before we could<00:14:19.519> had<00:14:19.680> the<00:14:19.839> technology<00:14:20.320> record" + }, + { + "start": 860.629, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "could had the technology record" + }, + { + "start": 860.639, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "could had the technology record individual<00:14:21.279> neurons." + }, + { + "start": 863.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "individual neurons." + }, + { + "start": 863.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "individual neurons. But<00:14:23.279> when<00:14:23.519> the<00:14:23.680> focus<00:14:24.000> in<00:14:24.160> the<00:14:24.240> mid<00:14:24.560> in<00:14:24.800> the<00:14:25.120> in" + }, + { + "start": 865.509, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But when the focus in the mid in the in" + }, + { + "start": 865.519, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But when the focus in the mid in the in uh<00:14:25.760> mid<00:14:26.160> 20th<00:14:26.480> century<00:14:26.800> shifted<00:14:27.199> to<00:14:27.360> neurons" + }, + { + "start": 867.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh mid 20th century shifted to neurons" + }, + { + "start": 867.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh mid 20th century shifted to neurons and<00:14:27.920> connectism,<00:14:28.959> brain<00:14:29.279> waves<00:14:29.519> were" + }, + { + "start": 869.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and connectism, brain waves were" + }, + { + "start": 869.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and connectism, brain waves were dismissed<00:14:30.079> as<00:14:30.320> non-functional.<00:14:31.120> Kind<00:14:31.279> of" + }, + { + "start": 871.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "dismissed as non-functional. Kind of" + }, + { + "start": 871.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "dismissed as non-functional. Kind of like<00:14:31.440> the<00:14:31.519> humming<00:14:31.839> of<00:14:32.000> a<00:14:32.160> car<00:14:32.320> engine.<00:14:32.880> They" + }, + { + "start": 873.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like the humming of a car engine. They" + }, + { + "start": 873.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like the humming of a car engine. They don't<00:14:33.360> make<00:14:33.519> the<00:14:33.680> engine<00:14:34.000> run.<00:14:34.480> These<00:14:34.880> these" + }, + { + "start": 875.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "don't make the engine run. These these" + }, + { + "start": 875.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "don't make the engine run. These these electrical<00:14:35.760> oscillations,<00:14:36.560> they<00:14:36.800> don't<00:14:36.959> make" + }, + { + "start": 877.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical oscillations, they don't make" + }, + { + "start": 877.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical oscillations, they don't make the<00:14:37.199> brain<00:14:37.440> run.<00:14:37.839> There<00:14:38.000> is<00:14:38.160> a<00:14:38.320> byproduct<00:14:38.880> of" + }, + { + "start": 879.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the brain run. There is a byproduct of" + }, + { + "start": 879.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the brain run. There is a byproduct of of<00:14:39.199> the<00:14:39.519> of<00:14:39.760> the<00:14:40.079> um<00:14:40.240> of<00:14:40.480> the<00:14:40.639> brain<00:14:40.959> running." + }, + { + "start": 881.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of the of the um of the brain running." + }, + { + "start": 881.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of the of the um of the brain running. Now<00:14:42.560> um<00:14:42.800> first<00:14:42.959> of<00:14:43.040> all<00:14:43.279> anybody<00:14:43.600> who" + }, + { + "start": 883.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now um first of all anybody who" + }, + { + "start": 883.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now um first of all anybody who understands<00:14:44.160> basic<00:14:44.480> electromagnetic<00:14:45.519> theory" + }, + { + "start": 885.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "understands basic electromagnetic theory" + }, + { + "start": 885.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "understands basic electromagnetic theory knows<00:14:46.240> that<00:14:46.399> can't<00:14:46.639> be<00:14:46.880> true.<00:14:47.440> If<00:14:47.600> the<00:14:47.760> neurons" + }, + { + "start": 888.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "knows that can't be true. If the neurons" + }, + { + "start": 888.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "knows that can't be true. If the neurons exist<00:14:48.480> in<00:14:48.720> this<00:14:48.959> electrical<00:14:49.360> environment<00:14:50.000> and" + }, + { + "start": 890.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "exist in this electrical environment and" + }, + { + "start": 890.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "exist in this electrical environment and their<00:14:50.480> spiking<00:14:51.199> is<00:14:51.600> changing<00:14:52.000> that" + }, + { + "start": 892.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "their spiking is changing that" + }, + { + "start": 892.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "their spiking is changing that electrical<00:14:52.560> environment<00:14:53.040> it's<00:14:53.279> going<00:14:53.360> to" + }, + { + "start": 893.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical environment it's going to" + }, + { + "start": 893.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical environment it's going to have<00:14:53.519> an<00:14:53.760> influence<00:14:54.160> on<00:14:54.560> on<00:14:55.040> um<00:14:55.440> sp<00:14:56.079> on<00:14:56.160> on" + }, + { + "start": 896.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have an influence on on um sp on on" + }, + { + "start": 896.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have an influence on on um sp on on spiking.<00:14:57.360> But<00:14:57.519> also<00:14:57.920> I'm<00:14:58.160> here<00:14:58.320> to<00:14:58.480> say<00:14:58.560> that" + }, + { + "start": 898.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking. But also I'm here to say that" + }, + { + "start": 898.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking. But also I'm here to say that we<00:14:59.040> need<00:14:59.120> to<00:14:59.279> banish<00:14:59.680> the<00:14:59.839> word<00:15:00.079> epiphenomenon" + }, + { + "start": 901.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we need to banish the word epiphenomenon" + }, + { + "start": 901.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we need to banish the word epiphenomenon from<00:15:01.519> neuroscience<00:15:02.240> specifically<00:15:02.639> in" + }, + { + "start": 902.949, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "from neuroscience specifically in" + }, + { + "start": 902.959, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "from neuroscience specifically in science<00:15:03.199> in<00:15:03.519> general<00:15:04.320> because<00:15:04.639> whenever<00:15:05.040> I" + }, + { + "start": 905.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "science in general because whenever I" + }, + { + "start": 905.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "science in general because whenever I hear<00:15:05.519> the<00:15:05.760> word<00:15:06.399> epiphenomenon<00:15:07.279> that's<00:15:07.440> what" + }, + { + "start": 907.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "hear the word epiphenomenon that's what" + }, + { + "start": 907.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "hear the word epiphenomenon that's what people<00:15:07.839> said<00:15:08.000> about<00:15:08.320> this<00:15:08.639> mean<00:15:08.800> by" + }, + { + "start": 908.949, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "people said about this mean by" + }, + { + "start": 908.959, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "people said about this mean by non-functional.<00:15:09.920> Brain<00:15:10.160> waves<00:15:10.399> are" + }, + { + "start": 910.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "non-functional. Brain waves are" + }, + { + "start": 910.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "non-functional. Brain waves are epifenomenal.<00:15:11.680> When<00:15:11.839> I<00:15:12.000> hear<00:15:12.160> the<00:15:12.320> word" + }, + { + "start": 912.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "epifenomenal. When I hear the word" + }, + { + "start": 912.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "epifenomenal. When I hear the word epiphen<00:15:13.360> whenever<00:15:13.680> someone<00:15:13.920> says" + }, + { + "start": 914.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "epiphen whenever someone says" + }, + { + "start": 914.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "epiphen whenever someone says epiphenomenon<00:15:15.279> I<00:15:15.519> hear<00:15:16.079> doesn't<00:15:16.399> fit<00:15:16.639> my" + }, + { + "start": 916.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "epiphenomenon I hear doesn't fit my" + }, + { + "start": 916.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "epiphenomenon I hear doesn't fit my theory.<00:15:18.240> Okay?<00:15:18.880> You<00:15:19.040> know<00:15:19.279> be<00:15:19.519> and<00:15:19.920> if<00:15:20.240> your" + }, + { + "start": 920.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "theory. Okay? You know be and if your" + }, + { + "start": 920.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "theory. Okay? You know be and if your theory<00:15:20.720> is<00:15:20.959> not<00:15:21.120> explaining<00:15:21.600> all<00:15:21.760> the" + }, + { + "start": 921.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "theory is not explaining all the" + }, + { + "start": 922.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "theory is not explaining all the observations<00:15:22.800> then<00:15:23.040> the<00:15:23.279> your<00:15:23.519> theory<00:15:23.839> is" + }, + { + "start": 923.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "observations then the your theory is" + }, + { + "start": 924.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "observations then the your theory is falling<00:15:24.320> short.<00:15:24.560> It's<00:15:24.720> not<00:15:24.880> that<00:15:25.040> the" + }, + { + "start": 925.189, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "falling short. It's not that the" + }, + { + "start": 925.199, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "falling short. It's not that the observations<00:15:25.760> are<00:15:26.000> irrelevant.<00:15:26.880> Saying<00:15:27.120> the" + }, + { + "start": 927.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "observations are irrelevant. Saying the" + }, + { + "start": 927.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "observations are irrelevant. Saying the observations<00:15:27.839> are<00:15:28.079> things<00:15:28.320> are" + }, + { + "start": 928.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "observations are things are" + }, + { + "start": 928.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "observations are things are non-functional<00:15:29.120> or<00:15:29.279> epifenomenal<00:15:30.160> is<00:15:30.399> an<00:15:30.560> eg" + }, + { + "start": 931.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "non-functional or epifenomenal is an eg" + }, + { + "start": 931.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "non-functional or epifenomenal is an eg crutch<00:15:31.440> to<00:15:32.160> dismiss<00:15:32.720> ideas<00:15:33.120> that<00:15:33.360> don't<00:15:33.519> fit" + }, + { + "start": 933.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "crutch to dismiss ideas that don't fit" + }, + { + "start": 933.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "crutch to dismiss ideas that don't fit your<00:15:33.920> hypothesis.<00:15:34.880> So<00:15:35.120> we<00:15:35.279> got<00:15:35.440> to<00:15:35.680> banish" + }, + { + "start": 936.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your hypothesis. So we got to banish" + }, + { + "start": 936.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your hypothesis. So we got to banish that<00:15:36.480> from<00:15:36.560> from<00:15:36.720> from<00:15:38.000> neuroscience" + }, + { + "start": 938.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that from from from neuroscience" + }, + { + "start": 938.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that from from from neuroscience particularly<00:15:39.040> because<00:15:39.199> we've<00:15:39.680> only" + }, + { + "start": 939.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "particularly because we've only" + }, + { + "start": 940.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "particularly because we've only scratched<00:15:40.320> the<00:15:40.480> surface<00:15:40.720> in<00:15:40.959> how<00:15:41.040> the<00:15:41.199> brain" + }, + { + "start": 941.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "scratched the surface in how the brain" + }, + { + "start": 941.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "scratched the surface in how the brain works.<00:15:42.639> And<00:15:42.800> again<00:15:43.040> we<00:15:43.199> now<00:15:43.360> know<00:15:43.519> this<00:15:43.680> is<00:15:43.839> not" + }, + { + "start": 944.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "works. And again we now know this is not" + }, + { + "start": 944.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "works. And again we now know this is not true.<00:15:45.040> One<00:15:45.199> way<00:15:45.360> we<00:15:45.519> know<00:15:45.680> this<00:15:45.839> is<00:15:46.000> not<00:15:46.160> true" + }, + { + "start": 946.629, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "true. One way we know this is not true" + }, + { + "start": 946.639, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "true. One way we know this is not true is<00:15:47.120> work<00:15:47.279> I've<00:15:47.600> done<00:15:48.079> uh<00:15:48.240> in<00:15:48.480> my<00:15:48.720> my<00:15:49.040> lab<00:15:49.279> with" + }, + { + "start": 949.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is work I've done uh in my my lab with" + }, + { + "start": 949.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is work I've done uh in my my lab with in<00:15:50.000> collaboration<00:15:50.399> with<00:15:50.480> Emmy<00:15:50.800> Brown's" + }, + { + "start": 951.189, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in collaboration with Emmy Brown's" + }, + { + "start": 951.199, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in collaboration with Emmy Brown's laboratory<00:15:51.680> where<00:15:51.920> we're<00:15:52.160> studying<00:15:52.720> how" + }, + { + "start": 953.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "laboratory where we're studying how" + }, + { + "start": 953.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "laboratory where we're studying how general<00:15:53.360> anesthesia<00:15:54.000> affects<00:15:54.320> the<00:15:54.480> brain." + }, + { + "start": 955.509, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "general anesthesia affects the brain." + }, + { + "start": 955.519, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "general anesthesia affects the brain. Now<00:15:55.839> it<00:15:56.000> may<00:15:56.160> be<00:15:56.480> um<00:15:57.120> a<00:15:57.440> little<00:15:57.600> disturbing<00:15:58.000> you" + }, + { + "start": 958.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now it may be um a little disturbing you" + }, + { + "start": 958.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now it may be um a little disturbing you know<00:15:58.320> because<00:15:58.560> anesthesia<00:15:59.040> has<00:15:59.199> been<00:15:59.360> around" + }, + { + "start": 959.509, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know because anesthesia has been around" + }, + { + "start": 959.519, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know because anesthesia has been around since<00:15:59.839> I<00:16:00.000> believe<00:16:00.320> 1869.<00:16:01.279> Etherdome<00:16:01.920> over" + }, + { + "start": 962.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "since I believe 1869. Etherdome over" + }, + { + "start": 962.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "since I believe 1869. Etherdome over here<00:16:02.240> at<00:16:02.720> MGH.<00:16:03.440> I<00:16:03.600> believe<00:16:03.759> it's<00:16:03.920> 1869<00:16:05.120> around" + }, + { + "start": 965.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "here at MGH. I believe it's 1869 around" + }, + { + "start": 965.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "here at MGH. I believe it's 1869 around there.<00:16:06.160> Um<00:16:07.199> where<00:16:07.440> the<00:16:07.600> first<00:16:07.759> demonstration" + }, + { + "start": 968.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "there. Um where the first demonstration" + }, + { + "start": 968.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "there. Um where the first demonstration of<00:16:08.720> med<00:16:09.040> medical<00:16:09.600> anesthesia<00:16:10.240> was<00:16:10.480> given.<00:16:11.199> Um" + }, + { + "start": 972.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of med medical anesthesia was given. Um" + }, + { + "start": 972.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of med medical anesthesia was given. Um there's<00:16:12.320> been<00:16:12.480> this<00:16:13.680> no<00:16:13.920> doctors<00:16:14.399> for<00:16:14.639> all" + }, + { + "start": 974.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "there's been this no doctors for all" + }, + { + "start": 974.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "there's been this no doctors for all this<00:16:14.959> time<00:16:15.199> doctors<00:16:15.519> have<00:16:15.680> really<00:16:15.920> not<00:16:16.160> known" + }, + { + "start": 976.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this time doctors have really not known" + }, + { + "start": 976.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this time doctors have really not known why<00:16:16.639> anesthesia<00:16:17.199> makes<00:16:17.360> you<00:16:17.519> unconscious." + }, + { + "start": 978.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "why anesthesia makes you unconscious." + }, + { + "start": 978.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "why anesthesia makes you unconscious. They<00:16:18.320> just<00:16:18.480> know<00:16:18.560> it<00:16:18.720> works.<00:16:18.959> It's<00:16:19.120> like<00:16:19.199> a<00:16:19.360> lot" + }, + { + "start": 979.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "They just know it works. It's like a lot" + }, + { + "start": 979.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "They just know it works. It's like a lot of<00:16:19.519> things<00:16:19.680> in<00:16:19.839> medicine.<00:16:20.560> It<00:16:20.720> works.<00:16:21.040> We" + }, + { + "start": 981.189, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of things in medicine. It works. We" + }, + { + "start": 981.199, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of things in medicine. It works. We don't<00:16:21.279> know<00:16:21.440> why.<00:16:21.680> So<00:16:21.839> we<00:16:22.079> use<00:16:22.160> it.<00:16:23.040> And<00:16:23.279> it<00:16:23.440> was" + }, + { + "start": 983.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "don't know why. So we use it. And it was" + }, + { + "start": 983.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "don't know why. So we use it. And it was thought<00:16:23.759> that<00:16:24.000> anesthesia<00:16:24.639> just<00:16:24.800> kind<00:16:24.959> of" + }, + { + "start": 985.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thought that anesthesia just kind of" + }, + { + "start": 985.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thought that anesthesia just kind of shut<00:16:25.279> off<00:16:25.440> your<00:16:25.680> cortex.<00:16:26.560> May<00:16:26.800> just<00:16:27.040> zero<00:16:27.360> out" + }, + { + "start": 987.509, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "shut off your cortex. May just zero out" + }, + { + "start": 987.519, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "shut off your cortex. May just zero out your<00:16:27.600> cortex.<00:16:28.079> Hit<00:16:28.240> the<00:16:28.399> off<00:16:28.639> button<00:16:28.880> at<00:16:29.040> your" + }, + { + "start": 989.189, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your cortex. Hit the off button at your" + }, + { + "start": 989.199, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your cortex. Hit the off button at your cortex.<00:16:30.320> And<00:16:30.480> we<00:16:30.720> found<00:16:30.959> in<00:16:31.199> starting<00:16:31.440> these" + }, + { + "start": 991.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex. And we found in starting these" + }, + { + "start": 991.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex. And we found in starting these studies<00:16:31.920> about<00:16:32.160> 10<00:16:32.320> years<00:16:32.480> ago,<00:16:32.959> this<00:16:33.199> is" + }, + { + "start": 993.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "studies about 10 years ago, this is" + }, + { + "start": 993.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "studies about 10 years ago, this is absolutely<00:16:33.839> not<00:16:34.160> true.<00:16:34.560> What<00:16:34.800> general" + }, + { + "start": 995.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "absolutely not true. What general" + }, + { + "start": 995.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "absolutely not true. What general anesthesia<00:16:35.680> does,<00:16:35.920> it<00:16:36.079> doesn't<00:16:36.160> turn<00:16:36.320> off" + }, + { + "start": 996.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "anesthesia does, it doesn't turn off" + }, + { + "start": 996.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "anesthesia does, it doesn't turn off your<00:16:36.639> cortex.<00:16:37.120> It<00:16:37.360> it<00:16:37.600> dramatically<00:16:38.240> alters" + }, + { + "start": 998.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your cortex. It it dramatically alters" + }, + { + "start": 998.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your cortex. It it dramatically alters the<00:16:38.800> brain<00:16:39.040> wave<00:16:39.360> dynamics.<00:16:40.320> So<00:16:40.480> here's<00:16:40.720> a" + }, + { + "start": 1000.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the brain wave dynamics. So here's a" + }, + { + "start": 1000.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the brain wave dynamics. So here's a recording<00:16:41.199> of<00:16:41.360> what's<00:16:41.600> called<00:16:41.839> local<00:16:42.240> field" + }, + { + "start": 1002.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "recording of what's called local field" + }, + { + "start": 1002.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "recording of what's called local field potentials.<00:16:43.120> These<00:16:43.360> are<00:16:43.519> essentially" + }, + { + "start": 1003.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "potentials. These are essentially" + }, + { + "start": 1003.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "potentials. These are essentially electric<00:16:44.240> field<00:16:44.480> recordings<00:16:44.959> from<00:16:45.199> inside" + }, + { + "start": 1005.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric field recordings from inside" + }, + { + "start": 1005.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric field recordings from inside the<00:16:46.000> the<00:16:46.399> brain,<00:16:46.720> inside<00:16:47.040> the<00:16:47.279> skull.<00:16:48.639> And" + }, + { + "start": 1008.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the the brain, inside the skull. And" + }, + { + "start": 1008.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the the brain, inside the skull. And that's<00:16:49.279> we're<00:16:49.440> seeing<00:16:49.600> these<00:16:49.920> colored<00:16:50.240> these" + }, + { + "start": 1010.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's we're seeing these colored these" + }, + { + "start": 1010.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's we're seeing these colored these are<00:16:50.720> uh<00:16:51.120> four<00:16:51.440> different<00:16:51.759> areas<00:16:52.079> of<00:16:52.240> the" + }, + { + "start": 1012.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are uh four different areas of the" + }, + { + "start": 1012.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are uh four different areas of the cortex.<00:16:53.279> These<00:16:53.600> two<00:16:53.839> areas<00:16:54.079> in<00:16:54.240> the<00:16:54.399> top<00:16:54.560> are" + }, + { + "start": 1014.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex. These two areas in the top are" + }, + { + "start": 1014.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex. These two areas in the top are the<00:16:54.880> frontal<00:16:55.199> cortex,<00:16:55.680> the<00:16:55.839> front<00:16:56.000> of<00:16:56.079> your" + }, + { + "start": 1016.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the frontal cortex, the front of your" + }, + { + "start": 1016.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the frontal cortex, the front of your brain,<00:16:56.560> the<00:16:56.720> executive<00:16:57.199> part<00:16:57.360> of<00:16:57.440> your<00:16:57.600> brain." + }, + { + "start": 1018.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain, the executive part of your brain." + }, + { + "start": 1018.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain, the executive part of your brain. This<00:16:58.399> is<00:16:58.480> the<00:16:58.720> parietal<00:16:59.199> cortex<00:16:59.680> in<00:16:59.839> the" + }, + { + "start": 1019.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "This is the parietal cortex in the" + }, + { + "start": 1020.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "This is the parietal cortex in the middle<00:17:00.160> of<00:17:00.320> your<00:17:00.480> cortex<00:17:01.199> and<00:17:01.440> back<00:17:01.680> here<00:17:02.000> STG" + }, + { + "start": 1022.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "middle of your cortex and back here STG" + }, + { + "start": 1022.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "middle of your cortex and back here STG is<00:17:02.800> is<00:17:03.199> primary<00:17:03.680> auditory<00:17:04.319> cortex.<00:17:04.799> So" + }, + { + "start": 1025.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is is primary auditory cortex. So" + }, + { + "start": 1025.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is is primary auditory cortex. So sensory<00:17:05.439> cortex.<00:17:05.839> So<00:17:06.000> we're<00:17:06.240> we're" + }, + { + "start": 1026.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sensory cortex. So we're we're" + }, + { + "start": 1026.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sensory cortex. So we're we're bracketing<00:17:07.520> sensory<00:17:07.919> to<00:17:08.079> frontal<00:17:08.400> cortex" + }, + { + "start": 1028.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "bracketing sensory to frontal cortex" + }, + { + "start": 1028.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "bracketing sensory to frontal cortex here.<00:17:09.039> And<00:17:09.120> these<00:17:09.360> are<00:17:09.760> electric<00:17:10.240> field" + }, + { + "start": 1030.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "here. And these are electric field" + }, + { + "start": 1030.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "here. And these are electric field recordings<00:17:10.959> on<00:17:11.199> the<00:17:11.360> top<00:17:11.760> and<00:17:12.079> the<00:17:12.240> bottom<00:17:12.480> are" + }, + { + "start": 1032.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "recordings on the top and the bottom are" + }, + { + "start": 1032.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "recordings on the top and the bottom are the<00:17:12.880> spikes<00:17:13.199> of<00:17:13.360> individual<00:17:13.919> neurons" + }, + { + "start": 1034.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the spikes of individual neurons" + }, + { + "start": 1034.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the spikes of individual neurons recorded<00:17:15.199> from<00:17:15.360> those<00:17:15.600> same<00:17:15.839> electrodes.<00:17:16.959> And" + }, + { + "start": 1037.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "recorded from those same electrodes. And" + }, + { + "start": 1037.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "recorded from those same electrodes. And what<00:17:17.360> you<00:17:17.520> see<00:17:17.600> in<00:17:17.760> the<00:17:17.919> conscious<00:17:18.319> awake" + }, + { + "start": 1038.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what you see in the conscious awake" + }, + { + "start": 1038.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what you see in the conscious awake state<00:17:18.959> is<00:17:19.199> a<00:17:19.360> lot<00:17:19.439> of<00:17:19.600> high<00:17:19.839> frequency" + }, + { + "start": 1040.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "state is a lot of high frequency" + }, + { + "start": 1040.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "state is a lot of high frequency chatter.<00:17:21.199> A<00:17:21.439> lot<00:17:21.520> of<00:17:21.600> stuff<00:17:21.760> is<00:17:22.000> going<00:17:22.160> on." + }, + { + "start": 1042.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "chatter. A lot of stuff is going on." + }, + { + "start": 1042.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "chatter. A lot of stuff is going on. There's<00:17:22.640> a<00:17:22.720> lot<00:17:22.799> of<00:17:23.039> uh<00:17:23.360> waves<00:17:23.760> superimposed" + }, + { + "start": 1044.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "There's a lot of uh waves superimposed" + }, + { + "start": 1044.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "There's a lot of uh waves superimposed on<00:17:24.400> top<00:17:24.559> of<00:17:24.640> waves<00:17:24.959> as<00:17:25.120> all<00:17:25.280> these<00:17:25.439> waves<00:17:25.839> do" + }, + { + "start": 1046.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "on top of waves as all these waves do" + }, + { + "start": 1046.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "on top of waves as all these waves do different<00:17:26.319> things.<00:17:26.880> So<00:17:27.039> you<00:17:27.199> see<00:17:27.360> a<00:17:27.520> lot<00:17:27.600> of" + }, + { + "start": 1047.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different things. So you see a lot of" + }, + { + "start": 1047.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different things. So you see a lot of high<00:17:28.079> frequency<00:17:28.640> low<00:17:28.880> amplitude<00:17:29.919> chatter<00:17:30.480> and" + }, + { + "start": 1050.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "high frequency low amplitude chatter and" + }, + { + "start": 1050.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "high frequency low amplitude chatter and a<00:17:30.880> lot<00:17:30.960> of<00:17:31.039> spiking<00:17:31.679> going<00:17:31.919> on.<00:17:32.160> It's<00:17:32.320> very" + }, + { + "start": 1052.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a lot of spiking going on. It's very" + }, + { + "start": 1052.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a lot of spiking going on. It's very very<00:17:32.960> very<00:17:33.280> busy<00:17:33.520> and<00:17:33.760> complicated<00:17:34.559> complex." + }, + { + "start": 1055.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "very very busy and complicated complex." + }, + { + "start": 1055.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "very very busy and complicated complex. Then<00:17:36.080> once<00:17:36.400> we<00:17:36.559> anesthetize<00:17:37.200> the<00:17:37.360> animal<00:17:37.600> with" + }, + { + "start": 1057.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Then once we anesthetize the animal with" + }, + { + "start": 1057.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Then once we anesthetize the animal with a<00:17:38.000> commonly<00:17:38.400> used<00:17:38.640> anesthetic<00:17:39.200> called" + }, + { + "start": 1059.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a commonly used anesthetic called" + }, + { + "start": 1059.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a commonly used anesthetic called propall<00:17:40.320> we<00:17:40.559> then<00:17:40.799> find<00:17:41.039> that<00:17:41.280> that<00:17:41.600> this" + }, + { + "start": 1062.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "propall we then find that that this" + }, + { + "start": 1062.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "propall we then find that that this shifts<00:17:42.640> the<00:17:42.880> brain<00:17:43.200> to<00:17:43.840> lower<00:17:44.320> frequency<00:17:44.880> a" + }, + { + "start": 1065.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "shifts the brain to lower frequency a" + }, + { + "start": 1065.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "shifts the brain to lower frequency a lower<00:17:45.360> frequency<00:17:45.760> band<00:17:46.080> to<00:17:46.240> to<00:17:46.320> to<00:17:47.200> 30<00:17:47.520> hertz" + }, + { + "start": 1067.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "lower frequency band to to to 30 hertz" + }, + { + "start": 1067.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "lower frequency band to to to 30 hertz and<00:17:48.000> to<00:17:48.240> mainly<00:17:48.720> 20<00:17:48.960> hertz<00:17:49.280> and<00:17:49.440> below<00:17:50.240> mainly" + }, + { + "start": 1070.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and to mainly 20 hertz and below mainly" + }, + { + "start": 1070.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and to mainly 20 hertz and below mainly centered<00:17:50.960> around<00:17:51.280> delta<00:17:51.760> one<00:17:52.000> time<00:17:52.240> a<00:17:52.480> second." + }, + { + "start": 1073.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "centered around delta one time a second." + }, + { + "start": 1073.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "centered around delta one time a second. So<00:17:53.200> your<00:17:53.440> brain<00:17:53.600> shifts<00:17:53.919> to<00:17:54.080> these<00:17:54.320> low" + }, + { + "start": 1074.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So your brain shifts to these low" + }, + { + "start": 1074.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So your brain shifts to these low frequency<00:17:55.120> oscillations.<00:17:55.840> You<00:17:56.000> can<00:17:56.080> see" + }, + { + "start": 1076.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequency oscillations. You can see" + }, + { + "start": 1076.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequency oscillations. You can see here,<00:17:56.720> here's<00:17:57.039> the<00:17:57.200> high<00:17:57.360> frequency<00:17:57.840> chatter" + }, + { + "start": 1078.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "here, here's the high frequency chatter" + }, + { + "start": 1078.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "here, here's the high frequency chatter when<00:17:58.400> you're<00:17:58.559> conscious.<00:17:59.360> Now<00:17:59.600> the<00:17:59.919> the" + }, + { + "start": 1080.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "when you're conscious. Now the the" + }, + { + "start": 1080.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "when you're conscious. Now the the electric<00:18:00.880> fields<00:18:01.120> are<00:18:01.280> now<00:18:01.520> doing<00:18:01.760> this<00:18:02.000> slow" + }, + { + "start": 1082.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric fields are now doing this slow" + }, + { + "start": 1082.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric fields are now doing this slow frequency<00:18:03.360> almost<00:18:03.679> like<00:18:03.840> a<00:18:04.000> slowwave<00:18:04.720> sleep" + }, + { + "start": 1085.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequency almost like a slowwave sleep" + }, + { + "start": 1085.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequency almost like a slowwave sleep kind<00:18:05.760> of<00:18:05.919> thing.<00:18:06.559> And<00:18:06.720> the<00:18:06.960> spiking<00:18:07.440> activity" + }, + { + "start": 1087.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "kind of thing. And the spiking activity" + }, + { + "start": 1087.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "kind of thing. And the spiking activity in<00:18:08.080> different<00:18:08.320> parts<00:18:08.559> of<00:18:08.720> cortex<00:18:09.440> are<00:18:09.760> now" + }, + { + "start": 1090.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in different parts of cortex are now" + }, + { + "start": 1090.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in different parts of cortex are now lining<00:18:10.880> up<00:18:11.200> to<00:18:11.440> these<00:18:11.679> slowwave<00:18:12.720> dynamics." + }, + { + "start": 1093.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "lining up to these slowwave dynamics." + }, + { + "start": 1093.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "lining up to these slowwave dynamics. They<00:18:13.440> were<00:18:13.600> lined<00:18:13.840> up<00:18:14.000> to<00:18:14.160> the<00:18:14.400> high<00:18:14.640> frequency" + }, + { + "start": 1095.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "They were lined up to the high frequency" + }, + { + "start": 1095.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "They were lined up to the high frequency stuff<00:18:15.360> here.<00:18:15.600> We<00:18:15.760> just<00:18:15.919> couldn't<00:18:16.240> sort<00:18:16.480> them" + }, + { + "start": 1096.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stuff here. We just couldn't sort them" + }, + { + "start": 1096.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stuff here. We just couldn't sort them out<00:18:17.200> at<00:18:17.280> least<00:18:17.520> at<00:18:17.760> first<00:18:18.000> glance<00:18:18.720> because" + }, + { + "start": 1099.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "out at least at first glance because" + }, + { + "start": 1099.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "out at least at first glance because there's<00:18:19.280> a<00:18:19.440> lot<00:18:19.520> of<00:18:20.000> fre<00:18:20.559> lower<00:18:20.799> and<00:18:21.039> higher" + }, + { + "start": 1101.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "there's a lot of fre lower and higher" + }, + { + "start": 1101.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "there's a lot of fre lower and higher frequencies<00:18:22.000> embedded<00:18:22.480> in<00:18:22.720> one<00:18:22.960> another" + }, + { + "start": 1103.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequencies embedded in one another" + }, + { + "start": 1103.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequencies embedded in one another harmonizing<00:18:24.720> one<00:18:24.880> another<00:18:25.360> in<00:18:25.520> the<00:18:25.679> conscious" + }, + { + "start": 1106.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "harmonizing one another in the conscious" + }, + { + "start": 1106.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "harmonizing one another in the conscious situation.<00:18:26.960> But<00:18:27.200> now<00:18:27.360> that<00:18:27.600> most<00:18:27.760> of<00:18:27.840> the" + }, + { + "start": 1107.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "situation. But now that most of the" + }, + { + "start": 1108.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "situation. But now that most of the frequencies<00:18:28.480> have<00:18:28.640> been<00:18:28.720> replaced<00:18:29.039> by<00:18:29.280> slow" + }, + { + "start": 1109.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequencies have been replaced by slow" + }, + { + "start": 1109.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequencies have been replaced by slow frequencies,<00:18:30.400> we<00:18:30.640> can<00:18:30.720> see<00:18:30.960> it<00:18:31.120> effect" + }, + { + "start": 1111.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequencies, we can see it effect" + }, + { + "start": 1111.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequencies, we can see it effect spiking<00:18:32.160> activity<00:18:32.559> from<00:18:32.880> individual<00:18:33.280> neurons" + }, + { + "start": 1114.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking activity from individual neurons" + }, + { + "start": 1114.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking activity from individual neurons strongly<00:18:34.720> phase<00:18:35.039> locks<00:18:35.440> to<00:18:35.679> different<00:18:36.640> um" + }, + { + "start": 1117.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "strongly phase locks to different um" + }, + { + "start": 1117.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "strongly phase locks to different um parts<00:18:37.440> of<00:18:37.520> of<00:18:37.760> these<00:18:38.000> low<00:18:38.240> frequency<00:18:38.720> waves." + }, + { + "start": 1119.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "parts of of these low frequency waves." + }, + { + "start": 1119.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "parts of of these low frequency waves. And<00:18:39.919> the<00:18:40.080> other<00:18:40.240> thing<00:18:40.400> anesthesia<00:18:41.120> does<00:18:41.679> is" + }, + { + "start": 1121.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And the other thing anesthesia does is" + }, + { + "start": 1121.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And the other thing anesthesia does is it<00:18:42.000> seems<00:18:42.240> to<00:18:42.480> scramble<00:18:42.880> the<00:18:43.120> alignment<00:18:43.520> of" + }, + { + "start": 1123.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it seems to scramble the alignment of" + }, + { + "start": 1123.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it seems to scramble the alignment of the<00:18:43.840> brain<00:18:44.080> waves.<00:18:45.280> Okay.<00:18:46.080> So<00:18:46.640> before<00:18:47.200> in<00:18:47.360> in" + }, + { + "start": 1127.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the brain waves. Okay. So before in in" + }, + { + "start": 1127.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the brain waves. Okay. So before in in the<00:18:47.760> awake<00:18:48.080> state<00:18:48.480> all<00:18:48.559> these<00:18:48.799> brain<00:18:49.039> waves" + }, + { + "start": 1129.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the awake state all these brain waves" + }, + { + "start": 1129.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the awake state all these brain waves are<00:18:49.440> highly<00:18:49.840> synchronous<00:18:50.320> and<00:18:50.480> the<00:18:50.640> peaks" + }, + { + "start": 1130.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are highly synchronous and the peaks" + }, + { + "start": 1130.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are highly synchronous and the peaks tend<00:18:51.120> to<00:18:51.200> line<00:18:51.360> up<00:18:51.520> one<00:18:51.760> another<00:18:51.919> because<00:18:52.240> your" + }, + { + "start": 1132.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "tend to line up one another because your" + }, + { + "start": 1132.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "tend to line up one another because your your<00:18:52.960> brains<00:18:53.360> your<00:18:53.600> cortex<00:18:54.000> is<00:18:54.240> talking<00:18:54.400> to" + }, + { + "start": 1134.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your brains your cortex is talking to" + }, + { + "start": 1134.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your brains your cortex is talking to one<00:18:54.720> another<00:18:55.440> and<00:18:55.600> when<00:18:56.400> peaks<00:18:56.799> of<00:18:57.120> um<00:18:57.360> of" + }, + { + "start": 1137.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "one another and when peaks of um of" + }, + { + "start": 1137.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "one another and when peaks of um of waves<00:18:58.080> mean<00:18:58.320> then<00:18:58.559> the<00:18:58.799> the<00:18:59.039> is<00:18:59.200> a<00:18:59.360> highly" + }, + { + "start": 1139.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves mean then the the is a highly" + }, + { + "start": 1139.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves mean then the the is a highly excitable<00:19:00.160> state<00:19:00.400> and<00:19:00.720> troughs<00:19:01.120> are<00:19:01.200> are<00:19:01.520> low" + }, + { + "start": 1141.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "excitable state and troughs are are low" + }, + { + "start": 1141.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "excitable state and troughs are are low energy<00:19:02.160> states.<00:19:03.039> So<00:19:03.280> that's<00:19:03.520> how<00:19:04.000> cortical" + }, + { + "start": 1144.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "energy states. So that's how cortical" + }, + { + "start": 1144.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "energy states. So that's how cortical communication<00:19:05.039> works.<00:19:05.760> When<00:19:06.160> when<00:19:06.480> waves<00:19:06.799> are" + }, + { + "start": 1146.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "communication works. When when waves are" + }, + { + "start": 1146.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "communication works. When when waves are in<00:19:07.120> sync<00:19:07.280> with<00:19:07.600> one<00:19:07.760> another,<00:19:08.160> the<00:19:08.400> neurons" + }, + { + "start": 1148.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in sync with one another, the neurons" + }, + { + "start": 1148.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in sync with one another, the neurons are<00:19:08.960> excitable<00:19:09.520> at<00:19:09.679> the<00:19:09.840> same<00:19:10.000> time.<00:19:10.240> And<00:19:10.400> then" + }, + { + "start": 1150.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are excitable at the same time. And then" + }, + { + "start": 1150.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are excitable at the same time. And then when<00:19:10.720> they're<00:19:11.200> and<00:19:11.440> then<00:19:11.600> they're<00:19:12.160> in<00:19:12.320> low" + }, + { + "start": 1152.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "when they're and then they're in low" + }, + { + "start": 1152.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "when they're and then they're in low energy<00:19:12.960> states<00:19:13.200> at<00:19:13.440> the<00:19:13.520> same<00:19:13.679> time.<00:19:13.919> So<00:19:14.080> they" + }, + { + "start": 1154.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "energy states at the same time. So they" + }, + { + "start": 1154.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "energy states at the same time. So they can<00:19:14.400> talk<00:19:14.480> to<00:19:14.640> one<00:19:14.799> another<00:19:15.039> because<00:19:15.360> they're" + }, + { + "start": 1155.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "can talk to one another because they're" + }, + { + "start": 1155.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "can talk to one another because they're they're<00:19:16.080> in<00:19:16.240> high<00:19:16.480> energy<00:19:16.880> states,<00:19:17.520> their" + }, + { + "start": 1157.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "they're in high energy states, their" + }, + { + "start": 1157.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "they're in high energy states, their high<00:19:17.840> energy<00:19:18.080> states<00:19:18.320> are<00:19:18.480> synchronous.<00:19:19.280> But" + }, + { + "start": 1159.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "high energy states are synchronous. But" + }, + { + "start": 1159.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "high energy states are synchronous. But after<00:19:19.760> anesthesia,<00:19:20.559> these<00:19:20.880> waves<00:19:21.280> become" + }, + { + "start": 1161.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "after anesthesia, these waves become" + }, + { + "start": 1161.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "after anesthesia, these waves become misaligned.<00:19:22.160> They<00:19:22.320> become<00:19:23.200> almost<00:19:23.760> 180" + }, + { + "start": 1163.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "misaligned. They become almost 180" + }, + { + "start": 1164.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "misaligned. They become almost 180 degrees<00:19:24.240> out<00:19:24.400> of<00:19:24.559> phase<00:19:24.720> of<00:19:24.880> one<00:19:25.039> another.<00:19:25.600> So" + }, + { + "start": 1165.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "degrees out of phase of one another. So" + }, + { + "start": 1165.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "degrees out of phase of one another. So now<00:19:26.000> when<00:19:26.320> one<00:19:26.559> set<00:19:26.720> of<00:19:26.880> neurons<00:19:27.200> is<00:19:27.280> in" + }, + { + "start": 1167.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "now when one set of neurons is in" + }, + { + "start": 1167.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "now when one set of neurons is in excitable<00:19:28.000> state,<00:19:28.480> another<00:19:28.799> set<00:19:28.960> of<00:19:29.120> neurons" + }, + { + "start": 1169.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "excitable state, another set of neurons" + }, + { + "start": 1169.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "excitable state, another set of neurons is<00:19:29.520> a<00:19:29.679> low<00:19:29.840> energy<00:19:30.240> state.<00:19:30.640> And<00:19:30.799> you're" + }, + { + "start": 1171.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is a low energy state. And you're" + }, + { + "start": 1171.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is a low energy state. And you're essentially<00:19:31.520> fragmenting<00:19:32.160> cortex<00:19:32.640> and" + }, + { + "start": 1172.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "essentially fragmenting cortex and" + }, + { + "start": 1172.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "essentially fragmenting cortex and breaking<00:19:33.120> apart<00:19:33.600> communication.<00:19:34.720> And<00:19:34.880> you" + }, + { + "start": 1175.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "breaking apart communication. And you" + }, + { + "start": 1175.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "breaking apart communication. And you can<00:19:35.200> see<00:19:35.280> that<00:19:35.600> here.<00:19:35.919> Here<00:19:36.160> is<00:19:36.320> the<00:19:36.480> spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1176.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "can see that here. Here is the spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1176.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "can see that here. Here is the spiking activity<00:19:37.520> from<00:19:37.840> different<00:19:38.160> areas.<00:19:38.880> And" + }, + { + "start": 1179.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "activity from different areas. And" + }, + { + "start": 1179.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "activity from different areas. And within<00:19:39.360> an<00:19:39.520> area,<00:19:39.760> the<00:19:40.000> spikes<00:19:40.320> line<00:19:40.559> up,<00:19:40.720> but" + }, + { + "start": 1180.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "within an area, the spikes line up, but" + }, + { + "start": 1180.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "within an area, the spikes line up, but you<00:19:41.039> see<00:19:41.120> the<00:19:41.280> spikes<00:19:41.600> are<00:19:41.760> now<00:19:42.000> misaligned" + }, + { + "start": 1183.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you see the spikes are now misaligned" + }, + { + "start": 1183.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you see the spikes are now misaligned across<00:19:43.679> the<00:19:43.919> different<00:19:44.160> cortical<00:19:44.640> areas.<00:19:45.600> So" + }, + { + "start": 1185.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "across the different cortical areas. So" + }, + { + "start": 1185.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "across the different cortical areas. So that's<00:19:45.919> what<00:19:46.160> anesthesia<00:19:46.640> does<00:19:46.799> to<00:19:46.880> your" + }, + { + "start": 1187.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's what anesthesia does to your" + }, + { + "start": 1187.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's what anesthesia does to your brain.<00:19:47.280> It<00:19:47.520> doesn't<00:19:47.679> shut<00:19:47.840> off<00:19:48.000> your<00:19:48.240> cortex." + }, + { + "start": 1189.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain. It doesn't shut off your cortex." + }, + { + "start": 1189.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain. It doesn't shut off your cortex. It<00:19:49.360> misaligned<00:19:49.919> and<00:19:50.160> fragments<00:19:50.640> the<00:19:51.039> uh<00:19:51.360> the" + }, + { + "start": 1191.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "It misaligned and fragments the uh the" + }, + { + "start": 1191.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "It misaligned and fragments the uh the the<00:19:52.080> brain<00:19:52.400> waves." + }, + { + "start": 1193.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the brain waves." + }, + { + "start": 1193.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the brain waves. Now,<00:19:54.160> we<00:19:54.320> did<00:19:54.480> this<00:19:54.720> first<00:19:54.960> study.<00:19:55.280> We<00:19:55.360> did" + }, + { + "start": 1195.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now, we did this first study. We did" + }, + { + "start": 1195.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now, we did this first study. We did this<00:19:55.919> with<00:19:56.160> propall<00:19:56.799> one<00:19:57.039> common<00:19:57.280> anesthetic." + }, + { + "start": 1198.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this with propall one common anesthetic." + }, + { + "start": 1198.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this with propall one common anesthetic. We've<00:19:58.480> since<00:19:58.640> then<00:19:58.880> branched<00:19:59.200> off<00:19:59.440> of" + }, + { + "start": 1199.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "We've since then branched off of" + }, + { + "start": 1199.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "We've since then branched off of different<00:20:00.000> anesthetics<00:20:00.960> because<00:20:01.360> medical<00:20:02.559> um" + }, + { + "start": 1203.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different anesthetics because medical um" + }, + { + "start": 1203.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different anesthetics because medical um practice<00:20:03.520> uses<00:20:03.760> a<00:20:03.919> variety<00:20:04.160> of<00:20:04.320> different" + }, + { + "start": 1204.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "practice uses a variety of different" + }, + { + "start": 1204.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "practice uses a variety of different anesthetics.<00:20:05.120> So<00:20:05.280> we<00:20:05.440> did<00:20:05.679> too.<00:20:06.400> And<00:20:06.640> what<00:20:06.799> we" + }, + { + "start": 1206.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "anesthetics. So we did too. And what we" + }, + { + "start": 1206.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "anesthetics. So we did too. And what we found<00:20:07.120> is<00:20:07.360> something<00:20:07.679> kind<00:20:07.919> of<00:20:08.080> I<00:20:08.320> think<00:20:08.400> is" + }, + { + "start": 1208.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "found is something kind of I think is" + }, + { + "start": 1208.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "found is something kind of I think is kind<00:20:08.720> of<00:20:08.799> remarkable.<00:20:09.360> We're<00:20:09.520> finding<00:20:09.760> a" + }, + { + "start": 1209.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "kind of remarkable. We're finding a" + }, + { + "start": 1209.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "kind of remarkable. We're finding a universal<00:20:10.400> signature<00:20:10.799> of<00:20:10.960> unconsciousness." + }, + { + "start": 1212.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "universal signature of unconsciousness." + }, + { + "start": 1212.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "universal signature of unconsciousness. We<00:20:12.480> saw<00:20:12.720> these<00:20:13.039> same<00:20:13.200> effects<00:20:13.919> with" + }, + { + "start": 1214.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "We saw these same effects with" + }, + { + "start": 1214.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "We saw these same effects with anesthetic<00:20:14.799> doses<00:20:15.200> of<00:20:15.440> three<00:20:15.760> different" + }, + { + "start": 1215.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "anesthetic doses of three different" + }, + { + "start": 1216.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "anesthetic doses of three different drugs<00:20:16.320> that<00:20:16.559> have<00:20:16.799> different<00:20:17.120> molecular" + }, + { + "start": 1217.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "drugs that have different molecular" + }, + { + "start": 1217.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "drugs that have different molecular actions.<00:20:18.480> Propol,<00:20:19.039> which<00:20:19.200> I<00:20:19.360> just<00:20:19.520> told<00:20:19.600> you" + }, + { + "start": 1219.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "actions. Propol, which I just told you" + }, + { + "start": 1219.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "actions. Propol, which I just told you about,<00:20:20.559> ketamine,<00:20:21.360> anesthetic<00:20:21.840> doses<00:20:22.160> of" + }, + { + "start": 1222.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "about, ketamine, anesthetic doses of" + }, + { + "start": 1222.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "about, ketamine, anesthetic doses of ketamine<00:20:23.520> and<00:20:23.760> dexatonine.<00:20:24.960> All<00:20:25.200> these" + }, + { + "start": 1225.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "ketamine and dexatonine. All these" + }, + { + "start": 1225.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "ketamine and dexatonine. All these things<00:20:25.600> make<00:20:25.840> you<00:20:26.000> unconscious<00:20:26.960> and<00:20:27.200> they<00:20:27.440> all" + }, + { + "start": 1227.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "things make you unconscious and they all" + }, + { + "start": 1227.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "things make you unconscious and they all act<00:20:27.919> on<00:20:28.080> different<00:20:28.400> molecular<00:20:28.880> receptors<00:20:29.600> in" + }, + { + "start": 1229.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "act on different molecular receptors in" + }, + { + "start": 1229.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "act on different molecular receptors in different<00:20:30.159> systems<00:20:30.480> in<00:20:30.640> your<00:20:30.799> brain," + }, + { + "start": 1231.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different systems in your brain," + }, + { + "start": 1231.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different systems in your brain, different<00:20:31.280> cells<00:20:31.520> in<00:20:31.760> your<00:20:31.919> brain,<00:20:32.480> but<00:20:32.720> they" + }, + { + "start": 1232.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different cells in your brain, but they" + }, + { + "start": 1232.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different cells in your brain, but they all<00:20:33.120> do<00:20:33.280> the<00:20:33.520> same<00:20:33.600> thing<00:20:33.760> to<00:20:33.919> the<00:20:34.080> brain" + }, + { + "start": 1234.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "all do the same thing to the brain" + }, + { + "start": 1234.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "all do the same thing to the brain waves.<00:20:35.520> Now,<00:20:35.679> if<00:20:35.840> you<00:20:36.000> think<00:20:36.159> about<00:20:36.240> that," + }, + { + "start": 1236.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves. Now, if you think about that," + }, + { + "start": 1236.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves. Now, if you think about that, that<00:20:36.720> means<00:20:36.960> we're<00:20:37.200> seeing<00:20:37.360> a<00:20:37.600> convergent" + }, + { + "start": 1238.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that means we're seeing a convergent" + }, + { + "start": 1238.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that means we're seeing a convergent level<00:20:38.400> effect<00:20:38.640> at<00:20:38.799> the<00:20:38.960> brain<00:20:39.200> wave<00:20:39.440> level" + }, + { + "start": 1240.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "level effect at the brain wave level" + }, + { + "start": 1240.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "level effect at the brain wave level that<00:20:40.559> can't<00:20:40.720> be<00:20:40.880> seen<00:20:41.039> at<00:20:41.280> the<00:20:41.360> more" + }, + { + "start": 1241.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that can't be seen at the more" + }, + { + "start": 1241.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that can't be seen at the more reductionist<00:20:42.400> level.<00:20:43.039> So,<00:20:43.200> to<00:20:43.360> my" + }, + { + "start": 1243.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "reductionist level. So, to my" + }, + { + "start": 1243.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "reductionist level. So, to my reductionistic<00:20:44.240> colleagues<00:20:44.640> who<00:20:44.799> say,<00:20:45.039> you" + }, + { + "start": 1245.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "reductionistic colleagues who say, you" + }, + { + "start": 1245.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "reductionistic colleagues who say, you know,<00:20:45.280> this<00:20:45.679> brain<00:20:46.000> wave<00:20:46.240> stuff<00:20:46.480> is<00:20:46.640> just<00:20:46.880> a" + }, + { + "start": 1247.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know, this brain wave stuff is just a" + }, + { + "start": 1247.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know, this brain wave stuff is just a humming<00:20:47.520> of<00:20:47.679> the<00:20:47.760> car<00:20:48.000> engine,<00:20:48.480> we<00:20:48.720> can" + }, + { + "start": 1248.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "humming of the car engine, we can" + }, + { + "start": 1248.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "humming of the car engine, we can explain<00:20:49.360> how<00:20:49.600> all<00:20:49.760> these<00:20:49.919> different" + }, + { + "start": 1250.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "explain how all these different" + }, + { + "start": 1250.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "explain how all these different anesthetics<00:20:51.520> um<00:20:52.000> have<00:20:52.159> the<00:20:52.400> same<00:20:52.559> effect" + }, + { + "start": 1252.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "anesthetics um have the same effect" + }, + { + "start": 1252.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "anesthetics um have the same effect making<00:20:53.200> you<00:20:53.360> unconscious.<00:20:54.080> And<00:20:54.240> this<00:20:54.480> in" + }, + { + "start": 1254.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "making you unconscious. And this in" + }, + { + "start": 1254.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "making you unconscious. And this in principle<00:20:55.039> cannot<00:20:55.360> be<00:20:55.440> explained<00:20:55.679> on<00:20:55.840> the" + }, + { + "start": 1255.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "principle cannot be explained on the" + }, + { + "start": 1256.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "principle cannot be explained on the reductionistic<00:20:56.640> level.<00:20:57.679> So<00:20:57.919> a<00:20:58.080> strong" + }, + { + "start": 1258.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "reductionistic level. So a strong" + }, + { + "start": 1258.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "reductionistic level. So a strong argument<00:20:58.640> for<00:20:58.880> function.<00:21:00.000> And<00:21:00.159> the<00:21:00.320> other<00:21:00.640> we" + }, + { + "start": 1260.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "argument for function. And the other we" + }, + { + "start": 1260.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "argument for function. And the other we know<00:21:01.200> we<00:21:01.360> also<00:21:01.679> know<00:21:01.919> from<00:21:02.159> a<00:21:02.720> large<00:21:03.120> body<00:21:03.360> of" + }, + { + "start": 1263.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know we also know from a large body of" + }, + { + "start": 1263.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know we also know from a large body of work<00:21:04.000> is<00:21:04.159> that<00:21:04.320> these<00:21:04.559> brain<00:21:04.720> waves<00:21:05.039> have<00:21:05.200> a" + }, + { + "start": 1265.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "work is that these brain waves have a" + }, + { + "start": 1265.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "work is that these brain waves have a direct<00:21:05.600> influence<00:21:06.000> on<00:21:06.320> on<00:21:06.640> spiking<00:21:07.120> activity" + }, + { + "start": 1267.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "direct influence on on spiking activity" + }, + { + "start": 1267.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "direct influence on on spiking activity in<00:21:08.159> cortex<00:21:08.799> and<00:21:09.039> in<00:21:09.200> fact<00:21:09.520> all<00:21:09.679> over<00:21:09.919> your" + }, + { + "start": 1270.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in cortex and in fact all over your" + }, + { + "start": 1270.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in cortex and in fact all over your brain<00:21:10.480> not<00:21:10.640> just<00:21:10.799> cortex.<00:21:11.840> So<00:21:12.080> if<00:21:12.240> this<00:21:12.400> buoy" + }, + { + "start": 1272.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain not just cortex. So if this buoy" + }, + { + "start": 1272.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain not just cortex. So if this buoy here<00:21:13.039> is<00:21:13.200> a<00:21:13.360> spike<00:21:14.000> in<00:21:14.159> in<00:21:14.480> your<00:21:14.880> uh<00:21:15.039> in<00:21:15.200> the<00:21:15.360> in" + }, + { + "start": 1275.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "here is a spike in in your uh in the in" + }, + { + "start": 1276.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "here is a spike in in your uh in the in your<00:21:16.240> cortex,<00:21:17.039> the<00:21:17.280> spiking<00:21:17.760> activity<00:21:18.240> rolls" + }, + { + "start": 1278.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your cortex, the spiking activity rolls" + }, + { + "start": 1278.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your cortex, the spiking activity rolls the<00:21:18.799> waves<00:21:19.039> and<00:21:19.200> the<00:21:19.360> waves<00:21:19.679> begin<00:21:19.919> to<00:21:20.320> knock" + }, + { + "start": 1280.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the waves and the waves begin to knock" + }, + { + "start": 1280.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the waves and the waves begin to knock the<00:21:20.720> buoy<00:21:21.120> up<00:21:21.200> and<00:21:21.360> down.<00:21:21.600> This<00:21:21.760> is<00:21:21.840> it's<00:21:22.080> a" + }, + { + "start": 1282.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the buoy up and down. This is it's a" + }, + { + "start": 1282.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the buoy up and down. This is it's a two-way<00:21:22.640> street.<00:21:22.880> is<00:21:23.039> birectional.<00:21:23.919> It's" + }, + { + "start": 1284.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "two-way street. is birectional. It's" + }, + { + "start": 1284.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "two-way street. is birectional. It's inevitable<00:21:24.720> because<00:21:25.039> of<00:21:25.200> basic" + }, + { + "start": 1285.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "inevitable because of basic" + }, + { + "start": 1286.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "inevitable because of basic electromagnetic<00:21:26.960> theory.<00:21:28.320> And<00:21:28.559> so<00:21:28.720> brain" + }, + { + "start": 1289.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electromagnetic theory. And so brain" + }, + { + "start": 1289.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electromagnetic theory. And so brain waves<00:21:29.280> are<00:21:29.440> made<00:21:29.600> of<00:21:29.679> the<00:21:29.840> same<00:21:30.080> stuff," + }, + { + "start": 1290.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves are made of the same stuff," + }, + { + "start": 1290.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves are made of the same stuff, spikes,<00:21:30.960> changes<00:21:31.200> in<00:21:31.440> voltage<00:21:31.840> levels,<00:21:32.400> just" + }, + { + "start": 1292.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spikes, changes in voltage levels, just" + }, + { + "start": 1292.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spikes, changes in voltage levels, just on<00:21:32.799> a<00:21:33.039> longer<00:21:33.440> time<00:21:33.760> scarger<00:21:34.799> spatial<00:21:35.200> and" + }, + { + "start": 1295.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "on a longer time scarger spatial and" + }, + { + "start": 1295.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "on a longer time scarger spatial and longer<00:21:35.679> time<00:21:36.000> scale.<00:21:37.039> And<00:21:37.200> that<00:21:37.360> means<00:21:37.520> they" + }, + { + "start": 1297.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "longer time scale. And that means they" + }, + { + "start": 1297.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "longer time scale. And that means they exert<00:21:37.919> a<00:21:38.159> strong<00:21:38.320> influence<00:21:38.720> on<00:21:38.880> when<00:21:39.520> neurons" + }, + { + "start": 1299.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "exert a strong influence on when neurons" + }, + { + "start": 1299.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "exert a strong influence on when neurons spiking<00:21:40.320> cortex.<00:21:41.200> It's<00:21:41.600> kind<00:21:41.679> of<00:21:41.760> like" + }, + { + "start": 1301.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking cortex. It's kind of like" + }, + { + "start": 1302.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking cortex. It's kind of like overlaying<00:21:42.640> powerful<00:21:43.039> radio<00:21:43.440> waves<00:21:43.760> onto<00:21:44.080> a" + }, + { + "start": 1304.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "overlaying powerful radio waves onto a" + }, + { + "start": 1304.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "overlaying powerful radio waves onto a telegraph<00:21:44.720> system<00:21:45.520> with<00:21:45.760> the<00:21:45.919> waves" + }, + { + "start": 1306.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "telegraph system with the waves" + }, + { + "start": 1306.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "telegraph system with the waves modulating<00:21:46.799> the<00:21:46.960> impulses<00:21:47.360> and<00:21:47.600> wires.<00:21:48.080> I" + }, + { + "start": 1308.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "modulating the impulses and wires. I" + }, + { + "start": 1308.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "modulating the impulses and wires. I know<00:21:48.480> I'm<00:21:48.720> probably<00:21:48.880> speaking<00:21:49.200> on<00:21:49.360> a<00:21:49.520> very" + }, + { + "start": 1309.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know I'm probably speaking on a very" + }, + { + "start": 1309.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know I'm probably speaking on a very elemental<00:21:50.400> level<00:21:50.640> to<00:21:50.960> this<00:21:51.200> particular" + }, + { + "start": 1311.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "elemental level to this particular" + }, + { + "start": 1311.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "elemental level to this particular group,<00:21:51.919> but<00:21:52.159> to<00:21:52.320> a<00:21:52.480> lot<00:21:52.559> of<00:21:52.640> people<00:21:52.880> who" + }, + { + "start": 1313.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "group, but to a lot of people who" + }, + { + "start": 1313.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "group, but to a lot of people who haven't<00:21:53.360> thought<00:21:53.520> about<00:21:53.679> these<00:21:53.919> waves" + }, + { + "start": 1314.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "haven't thought about these waves" + }, + { + "start": 1314.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "haven't thought about these waves before,<00:21:54.960> this<00:21:55.200> kind<00:21:55.360> of<00:21:55.520> stuff<00:21:55.760> is<00:21:56.159> uh<00:21:56.400> can<00:21:56.640> be" + }, + { + "start": 1316.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "before, this kind of stuff is uh can be" + }, + { + "start": 1316.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "before, this kind of stuff is uh can be new<00:21:56.960> to<00:21:57.120> them.<00:21:58.559> So,<00:21:58.799> here's<00:21:59.039> a<00:21:59.200> crowd<00:21:59.520> here" + }, + { + "start": 1319.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "new to them. So, here's a crowd here" + }, + { + "start": 1319.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "new to them. So, here's a crowd here doing<00:22:00.000> the<00:22:00.159> wave.<00:22:00.880> You<00:22:01.120> see<00:22:01.840> the<00:22:02.080> the<00:22:02.320> wave<00:22:02.559> is" + }, + { + "start": 1322.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "doing the wave. You see the the wave is" + }, + { + "start": 1322.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "doing the wave. You see the the wave is moving<00:22:03.039> from<00:22:03.200> right<00:22:03.440> to<00:22:03.600> left<00:22:03.840> across<00:22:04.240> the" + }, + { + "start": 1324.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "moving from right to left across the" + }, + { + "start": 1324.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "moving from right to left across the screen.<00:22:05.360> What<00:22:05.600> your<00:22:05.840> brain<00:22:06.080> does<00:22:06.240> is<00:22:06.320> this" + }, + { + "start": 1326.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "screen. What your brain does is this" + }, + { + "start": 1326.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "screen. What your brain does is this too.<00:22:06.720> If<00:22:06.880> these<00:22:07.120> pe<00:22:07.360> individual<00:22:07.840> people<00:22:08.000> in" + }, + { + "start": 1328.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "too. If these pe individual people in" + }, + { + "start": 1328.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "too. If these pe individual people in the<00:22:08.320> crowd<00:22:08.640> are<00:22:08.960> individual<00:22:09.440> neurons,<00:22:10.000> what" + }, + { + "start": 1330.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the crowd are individual neurons, what" + }, + { + "start": 1330.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the crowd are individual neurons, what we<00:22:10.400> see<00:22:10.640> all<00:22:10.880> over<00:22:11.200> cortex,<00:22:11.760> in<00:22:11.919> fact<00:22:12.159> all<00:22:12.400> over" + }, + { + "start": 1332.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we see all over cortex, in fact all over" + }, + { + "start": 1332.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we see all over cortex, in fact all over the<00:22:12.720> brain,<00:22:13.039> your<00:22:13.200> cerebellum,<00:22:14.400> subcortical" + }, + { + "start": 1335.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the brain, your cerebellum, subcortical" + }, + { + "start": 1335.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the brain, your cerebellum, subcortical areas,<00:22:15.919> even<00:22:16.240> primitive<00:22:16.640> brain<00:22:16.960> structures" + }, + { + "start": 1337.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "areas, even primitive brain structures" + }, + { + "start": 1337.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "areas, even primitive brain structures like<00:22:17.600> your<00:22:17.840> youractory<00:22:18.640> bulb,<00:22:19.360> you<00:22:19.520> see<00:22:19.679> the" + }, + { + "start": 1339.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like your youractory bulb, you see the" + }, + { + "start": 1339.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like your youractory bulb, you see the ongo<00:22:20.320> you<00:22:20.480> see<00:22:20.640> neurons<00:22:21.120> spiking<00:22:21.919> in" + }, + { + "start": 1342.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "ongo you see neurons spiking in" + }, + { + "start": 1342.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "ongo you see neurons spiking in synchrony<00:22:23.039> to<00:22:23.360> peaks<00:22:24.159> of<00:22:24.720> ongoing<00:22:25.440> uh<00:22:25.679> uh" + }, + { + "start": 1345.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "synchrony to peaks of ongoing uh uh" + }, + { + "start": 1345.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "synchrony to peaks of ongoing uh uh brain<00:22:26.080> waves.<00:22:26.400> You<00:22:26.559> see<00:22:26.720> that<00:22:26.880> here?<00:22:27.120> Here's" + }, + { + "start": 1347.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain waves. You see that here? Here's" + }, + { + "start": 1347.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain waves. You see that here? Here's the<00:22:27.520> brain<00:22:27.760> waves<00:22:28.159> going<00:22:28.320> on.<00:22:28.640> Your<00:22:28.799> brain's" + }, + { + "start": 1349.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the brain waves going on. Your brain's" + }, + { + "start": 1349.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the brain waves going on. Your brain's doing<00:22:29.360> the<00:22:29.520> wave<00:22:29.840> here.<00:22:30.240> And<00:22:30.480> spikes<00:22:30.880> tend<00:22:31.120> to" + }, + { + "start": 1351.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "doing the wave here. And spikes tend to" + }, + { + "start": 1351.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "doing the wave here. And spikes tend to occur.<00:22:31.840> They<00:22:32.080> phase<00:22:32.400> lock<00:22:32.720> to<00:22:32.960> high<00:22:33.200> energy" + }, + { + "start": 1353.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "occur. They phase lock to high energy" + }, + { + "start": 1353.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "occur. They phase lock to high energy states<00:22:33.840> of<00:22:34.000> the<00:22:34.159> waves.<00:22:35.200> Okay?" + }, + { + "start": 1356.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "states of the waves. Okay?" + }, + { + "start": 1356.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "states of the waves. Okay? Now<00:22:37.200> for<00:22:37.440> the<00:22:37.600> last<00:22:37.919> 10<00:22:38.159> years<00:22:38.400> or<00:22:38.640> so,<00:22:39.200> our" + }, + { + "start": 1359.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now for the last 10 years or so, our" + }, + { + "start": 1359.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now for the last 10 years or so, our laboratory<00:22:40.480> has<00:22:40.720> amassed<00:22:41.200> quite<00:22:41.360> a<00:22:41.520> bit<00:22:41.679> of" + }, + { + "start": 1361.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "laboratory has amassed quite a bit of" + }, + { + "start": 1361.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "laboratory has amassed quite a bit of evidence<00:22:42.559> showing<00:22:42.880> that<00:22:43.120> there's<00:22:43.520> now<00:22:43.679> the" + }, + { + "start": 1363.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "evidence showing that there's now the" + }, + { + "start": 1364.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "evidence showing that there's now the know<00:22:44.400> it's<00:22:44.640> a<00:22:44.799> mistake<00:22:45.120> to<00:22:45.280> to<00:22:45.360> to<00:22:46.080> assign" + }, + { + "start": 1367.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know it's a mistake to to to assign" + }, + { + "start": 1367.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know it's a mistake to to to assign specific<00:22:47.840> functions<00:22:48.240> to<00:22:48.480> individual" + }, + { + "start": 1368.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "specific functions to individual" + }, + { + "start": 1368.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "specific functions to individual frequencies<00:22:49.520> or<00:22:49.760> frequency<00:22:50.240> bands<00:22:50.720> because" + }, + { + "start": 1371.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequencies or frequency bands because" + }, + { + "start": 1371.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequencies or frequency bands because that's<00:22:51.679> like<00:22:51.919> saying<00:22:52.159> a<00:22:53.039> electrical<00:22:53.520> impulse" + }, + { + "start": 1373.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's like saying a electrical impulse" + }, + { + "start": 1373.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's like saying a electrical impulse has<00:22:54.080> a<00:22:54.240> certain<00:22:54.480> function.<00:22:54.799> It<00:22:54.960> doesn't.<00:22:55.200> It" + }, + { + "start": 1375.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "has a certain function. It doesn't. It" + }, + { + "start": 1375.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "has a certain function. It doesn't. It depends<00:22:55.520> on<00:22:55.840> the<00:22:56.080> circuit<00:22:56.480> which<00:22:56.640> is<00:22:56.799> embedded" + }, + { + "start": 1377.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "depends on the circuit which is embedded" + }, + { + "start": 1377.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "depends on the circuit which is embedded in.<00:22:57.760> But<00:22:58.000> we're<00:22:58.240> finding<00:22:58.559> a<00:22:58.960> general<00:22:59.919> divide" + }, + { + "start": 1380.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in. But we're finding a general divide" + }, + { + "start": 1380.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in. But we're finding a general divide of<00:23:00.480> function<00:23:00.880> between<00:23:01.679> higher<00:23:02.080> frequencies" + }, + { + "start": 1383.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of function between higher frequencies" + }, + { + "start": 1383.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of function between higher frequencies and<00:23:03.679> mid<00:23:03.919> mid<00:23:04.320> to<00:23:04.480> lower<00:23:04.799> frequencies.<00:23:06.080> And" + }, + { + "start": 1386.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and mid mid to lower frequencies. And" + }, + { + "start": 1386.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and mid mid to lower frequencies. And what<00:23:06.640> seems<00:23:06.960> what<00:23:07.280> what<00:23:07.520> this<00:23:07.679> evidence" + }, + { + "start": 1387.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what seems what what this evidence" + }, + { + "start": 1388.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what seems what what this evidence suggests<00:23:08.320> is<00:23:08.480> that<00:23:08.720> bottom<00:23:09.120> up<00:23:09.440> incoming" + }, + { + "start": 1389.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "suggests is that bottom up incoming" + }, + { + "start": 1390.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "suggests is that bottom up incoming sensory<00:23:10.480> information<00:23:11.039> which<00:23:11.280> is<00:23:11.679> associated" + }, + { + "start": 1392.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sensory information which is associated" + }, + { + "start": 1392.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sensory information which is associated with<00:23:12.720> high<00:23:13.520> energy<00:23:13.919> states<00:23:14.240> in<00:23:14.480> your<00:23:14.640> brain," + }, + { + "start": 1395.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "with high energy states in your brain," + }, + { + "start": 1395.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "with high energy states in your brain, lots<00:23:15.360> of<00:23:15.520> spiking<00:23:16.000> activity<00:23:16.400> of<00:23:16.559> neurons." + }, + { + "start": 1397.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "lots of spiking activity of neurons." + }, + { + "start": 1397.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "lots of spiking activity of neurons. That's<00:23:17.919> also<00:23:18.159> associated<00:23:18.720> with<00:23:18.880> high" + }, + { + "start": 1399.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "That's also associated with high" + }, + { + "start": 1399.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "That's also associated with high frequency<00:23:19.760> brain<00:23:20.080> waves<00:23:20.799> that<00:23:21.120> feed<00:23:21.520> sensory" + }, + { + "start": 1401.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequency brain waves that feed sensory" + }, + { + "start": 1402.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequency brain waves that feed sensory information<00:23:22.559> forward<00:23:23.280> from<00:23:23.600> the<00:23:23.760> back<00:23:23.919> of" + }, + { + "start": 1403.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information forward from the back of" + }, + { + "start": 1404.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information forward from the back of your<00:23:24.240> brain<00:23:24.480> where<00:23:24.640> it's<00:23:24.880> first<00:23:25.120> processed" + }, + { + "start": 1406.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your brain where it's first processed" + }, + { + "start": 1406.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your brain where it's first processed forward<00:23:26.480> in<00:23:26.720> your<00:23:26.880> brain<00:23:27.520> to<00:23:27.840> your<00:23:28.240> executive" + }, + { + "start": 1408.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "forward in your brain to your executive" + }, + { + "start": 1408.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "forward in your brain to your executive parts<00:23:29.039> of<00:23:29.120> your<00:23:29.200> brain,<00:23:29.440> the<00:23:29.600> front<00:23:29.760> of<00:23:29.840> your" + }, + { + "start": 1409.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "parts of your brain, the front of your" + }, + { + "start": 1410.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "parts of your brain, the front of your brain.<00:23:30.799> So<00:23:30.960> that's<00:23:31.440> so<00:23:31.600> when<00:23:31.760> you<00:23:31.919> when<00:23:32.159> you" + }, + { + "start": 1412.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain. So that's so when you when you" + }, + { + "start": 1412.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain. So that's so when you when you see<00:23:32.559> something,<00:23:32.880> when<00:23:33.120> you<00:23:33.280> hear<00:23:33.520> something," + }, + { + "start": 1413.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "see something, when you hear something," + }, + { + "start": 1413.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "see something, when you hear something, when<00:23:34.080> you're<00:23:34.320> touched,<00:23:35.120> there's<00:23:35.360> a<00:23:35.520> lot<00:23:35.600> of" + }, + { + "start": 1415.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "when you're touched, there's a lot of" + }, + { + "start": 1415.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "when you're touched, there's a lot of spiking<00:23:36.159> going<00:23:36.240> on<00:23:36.559> your<00:23:36.720> sensory<00:23:37.120> cortex," + }, + { + "start": 1417.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking going on your sensory cortex," + }, + { + "start": 1417.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking going on your sensory cortex, that's<00:23:38.080> riding<00:23:38.480> on<00:23:38.640> top<00:23:38.799> of<00:23:38.880> these<00:23:39.120> high" + }, + { + "start": 1419.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's riding on top of these high" + }, + { + "start": 1419.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's riding on top of these high frequency<00:23:39.840> gamma<00:23:40.159> waves,<00:23:40.559> 30<00:23:40.799> Hz<00:23:41.120> and<00:23:41.200> above" + }, + { + "start": 1421.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequency gamma waves, 30 Hz and above" + }, + { + "start": 1421.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequency gamma waves, 30 Hz and above waves,<00:23:42.159> feeding<00:23:42.640> information<00:23:43.120> forward<00:23:43.440> in" + }, + { + "start": 1423.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves, feeding information forward in" + }, + { + "start": 1423.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves, feeding information forward in waves<00:23:44.400> in<00:23:44.640> your<00:23:44.799> cortex.<00:23:46.240> At<00:23:46.480> the<00:23:46.640> same<00:23:46.880> time," + }, + { + "start": 1427.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves in your cortex. At the same time," + }, + { + "start": 1427.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves in your cortex. At the same time, your<00:23:47.919> executive<00:23:48.480> frontal<00:23:48.960> cortex,<00:23:49.440> which<00:23:49.679> is" + }, + { + "start": 1430.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your executive frontal cortex, which is" + }, + { + "start": 1430.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your executive frontal cortex, which is what<00:23:50.559> takes<00:23:50.880> charge<00:23:51.120> of<00:23:51.280> your<00:23:51.440> brain,<00:23:52.080> it's" + }, + { + "start": 1432.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what takes charge of your brain, it's" + }, + { + "start": 1432.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what takes charge of your brain, it's feeding<00:23:52.720> back<00:23:53.039> signals<00:23:53.440> in<00:23:53.600> the<00:23:53.760> opposite" + }, + { + "start": 1434.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "feeding back signals in the opposite" + }, + { + "start": 1434.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "feeding back signals in the opposite direction<00:23:54.480> that<00:23:54.640> that<00:23:54.960> provide<00:23:55.280> that" + }, + { + "start": 1435.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "direction that that provide that" + }, + { + "start": 1435.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "direction that that provide that executive<00:23:56.159> control.<00:23:57.280> And<00:23:57.520> those<00:23:57.840> signals<00:23:58.799> are" + }, + { + "start": 1439.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "executive control. And those signals are" + }, + { + "start": 1439.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "executive control. And those signals are at<00:23:59.600> a<00:23:59.760> lower<00:24:00.080> to<00:24:00.240> mid-frequency<00:24:00.880> band,<00:24:01.200> alpha," + }, + { + "start": 1441.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "at a lower to mid-frequency band, alpha," + }, + { + "start": 1441.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "at a lower to mid-frequency band, alpha, beta,<00:24:02.080> 10<00:24:02.320> to<00:24:02.640> 25<00:24:03.120> hertz.<00:24:04.000> And<00:24:04.240> we've<00:24:04.480> shown" + }, + { + "start": 1444.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "beta, 10 to 25 hertz. And we've shown" + }, + { + "start": 1444.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "beta, 10 to 25 hertz. And we've shown that<00:24:04.880> they<00:24:05.039> have<00:24:05.200> an<00:24:05.360> inhibitory<00:24:06.080> influence." + }, + { + "start": 1446.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that they have an inhibitory influence." + }, + { + "start": 1446.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that they have an inhibitory influence. They<00:24:06.960> suppress<00:24:07.919> they<00:24:08.159> reduce<00:24:08.559> energy<00:24:09.280> on<00:24:09.520> the" + }, + { + "start": 1449.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "They suppress they reduce energy on the" + }, + { + "start": 1449.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "They suppress they reduce energy on the on<00:24:09.919> these<00:24:10.159> excitatory<00:24:10.880> gamma<00:24:11.279> signals.<00:24:12.559> Okay?" + }, + { + "start": 1453.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "on these excitatory gamma signals. Okay?" + }, + { + "start": 1453.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "on these excitatory gamma signals. Okay? And<00:24:13.279> that<00:24:13.520> allows<00:24:13.840> your<00:24:14.080> brain<00:24:14.640> to<00:24:15.039> control" + }, + { + "start": 1455.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And that allows your brain to control" + }, + { + "start": 1455.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And that allows your brain to control what<00:24:15.760> you<00:24:16.000> pay<00:24:16.159> attention<00:24:16.480> to.<00:24:17.039> It<00:24:17.200> allows" + }, + { + "start": 1457.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what you pay attention to. It allows" + }, + { + "start": 1457.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what you pay attention to. It allows your<00:24:17.600> brain<00:24:17.840> to<00:24:18.000> filter<00:24:18.320> out<00:24:18.480> the<00:24:18.640> bulk<00:24:18.880> of" + }, + { + "start": 1459.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your brain to filter out the bulk of" + }, + { + "start": 1459.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your brain to filter out the bulk of sensory<00:24:19.440> information.<00:24:19.840> If<00:24:20.080> your<00:24:20.240> brain<00:24:20.559> tried" + }, + { + "start": 1460.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sensory information. If your brain tried" + }, + { + "start": 1460.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sensory information. If your brain tried to<00:24:20.960> process<00:24:21.679> all<00:24:21.919> the<00:24:22.080> sensory<00:24:22.480> information" + }, + { + "start": 1462.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to process all the sensory information" + }, + { + "start": 1462.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to process all the sensory information flooding<00:24:23.279> into<00:24:23.520> it<00:24:23.760> right<00:24:23.919> now,<00:24:24.400> it<00:24:24.559> would<00:24:24.720> be" + }, + { + "start": 1464.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "flooding into it right now, it would be" + }, + { + "start": 1464.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "flooding into it right now, it would be overwhelmed<00:24:26.000> because<00:24:26.240> your<00:24:26.480> brain<00:24:26.799> doesn't" + }, + { + "start": 1467.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "overwhelmed because your brain doesn't" + }, + { + "start": 1467.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "overwhelmed because your brain doesn't have<00:24:27.200> that<00:24:27.440> capacity.<00:24:28.000> And<00:24:28.159> that's<00:24:28.320> what<00:24:28.480> you" + }, + { + "start": 1468.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have that capacity. And that's what you" + }, + { + "start": 1468.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have that capacity. And that's what you see<00:24:28.720> in<00:24:28.880> autism,<00:24:29.360> by<00:24:29.440> the<00:24:29.520> way.<00:24:29.760> You<00:24:29.919> see<00:24:30.000> the" + }, + { + "start": 1470.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "see in autism, by the way. You see the" + }, + { + "start": 1470.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "see in autism, by the way. You see the sensory<00:24:30.640> overload.<00:24:31.600> Well,<00:24:31.840> these<00:24:32.880> we've" + }, + { + "start": 1473.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sensory overload. Well, these we've" + }, + { + "start": 1473.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sensory overload. Well, these we've amassed<00:24:33.520> evidence<00:24:33.840> showing<00:24:34.080> these<00:24:34.320> top<00:24:34.559> down" + }, + { + "start": 1474.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "amassed evidence showing these top down" + }, + { + "start": 1474.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "amassed evidence showing these top down these<00:24:35.039> alpha<00:24:35.440> beta<00:24:35.919> control<00:24:36.240> signals<00:24:36.640> having" + }, + { + "start": 1476.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these alpha beta control signals having" + }, + { + "start": 1476.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these alpha beta control signals having this<00:24:37.039> inhibitory<00:24:37.679> influence<00:24:38.080> on<00:24:38.320> these" + }, + { + "start": 1478.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this inhibitory influence on these" + }, + { + "start": 1478.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this inhibitory influence on these excitatory<00:24:39.120> signals<00:24:39.440> feeding<00:24:39.760> forward<00:24:40.480> can" + }, + { + "start": 1480.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "excitatory signals feeding forward can" + }, + { + "start": 1480.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "excitatory signals feeding forward can provide<00:24:41.279> that<00:24:41.520> filtering<00:24:42.240> that<00:24:42.559> prevents" + }, + { + "start": 1482.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "provide that filtering that prevents" + }, + { + "start": 1482.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "provide that filtering that prevents sensory<00:24:43.279> overload<00:24:43.919> and<00:24:44.159> allows<00:24:45.200> attention" + }, + { + "start": 1485.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sensory overload and allows attention" + }, + { + "start": 1485.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sensory overload and allows attention and<00:24:46.080> executive<00:24:46.640> control<00:24:46.960> over<00:24:47.200> the<00:24:47.360> brain." + }, + { + "start": 1488.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and executive control over the brain." + }, + { + "start": 1488.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and executive control over the brain. Now<00:24:48.559> your<00:24:48.799> cortex<00:24:49.200> has<00:24:49.440> multiple<00:24:49.919> layers." + }, + { + "start": 1490.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now your cortex has multiple layers." + }, + { + "start": 1490.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now your cortex has multiple layers. Your<00:24:50.400> cortex<00:24:50.720> is<00:24:50.880> kind<00:24:50.960> of<00:24:51.039> like<00:24:51.120> an<00:24:51.279> onion." + }, + { + "start": 1492.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Your cortex is kind of like an onion." + }, + { + "start": 1492.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Your cortex is kind of like an onion. And<00:24:52.559> we<00:24:52.799> know<00:24:52.880> from<00:24:53.120> the<00:24:53.279> anatomy<00:24:54.159> that<00:24:54.480> the" + }, + { + "start": 1495.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And we know from the anatomy that the" + }, + { + "start": 1495.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And we know from the anatomy that the superficial,<00:24:56.080> the<00:24:56.480> outer<00:24:56.960> layers<00:24:57.120> of<00:24:57.279> cortex" + }, + { + "start": 1497.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "superficial, the outer layers of cortex" + }, + { + "start": 1497.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "superficial, the outer layers of cortex are<00:24:57.919> the<00:24:58.080> ones<00:24:58.240> that<00:24:58.400> are<00:24:58.559> supposed<00:24:58.799> to<00:24:58.960> feed" + }, + { + "start": 1499.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are the ones that are supposed to feed" + }, + { + "start": 1499.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are the ones that are supposed to feed forward<00:24:59.600> sensory<00:25:00.080> information<00:25:00.480> from<00:25:00.720> the" + }, + { + "start": 1501.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "forward sensory information from the" + }, + { + "start": 1501.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "forward sensory information from the back<00:25:01.440> of<00:25:01.600> the<00:25:01.760> brain<00:25:01.919> to<00:25:02.159> the<00:25:02.240> front<00:25:02.400> of<00:25:02.480> the" + }, + { + "start": 1502.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "back of the brain to the front of the" + }, + { + "start": 1502.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "back of the brain to the front of the brain.<00:25:03.600> And<00:25:03.760> the<00:25:04.000> deep<00:25:04.400> layers<00:25:04.960> are<00:25:05.200> the<00:25:05.360> ones" + }, + { + "start": 1505.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain. And the deep layers are the ones" + }, + { + "start": 1505.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain. And the deep layers are the ones that<00:25:05.919> feed<00:25:06.240> back<00:25:06.559> information<00:25:07.120> anatomically." + }, + { + "start": 1507.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that feed back information anatomically." + }, + { + "start": 1507.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that feed back information anatomically. We<00:25:08.000> know<00:25:08.400> for<00:25:08.799> long<00:25:09.120> time<00:25:09.279> now,<00:25:09.840> half<00:25:10.000> a" + }, + { + "start": 1510.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "We know for long time now, half a" + }, + { + "start": 1510.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "We know for long time now, half a century<00:25:10.480> more,<00:25:10.799> that<00:25:11.039> the<00:25:11.520> deep<00:25:12.000> layers<00:25:12.480> are" + }, + { + "start": 1512.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "century more, that the deep layers are" + }, + { + "start": 1512.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "century more, that the deep layers are the<00:25:12.799> ones<00:25:13.039> feeding<00:25:13.360> back<00:25:13.679> information.<00:25:14.640> So" + }, + { + "start": 1514.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the ones feeding back information. So" + }, + { + "start": 1514.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the ones feeding back information. So these<00:25:15.360> these<00:25:15.760> rhythms<00:25:16.240> should<00:25:16.480> in<00:25:16.720> fact<00:25:17.039> map" + }, + { + "start": 1517.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these these rhythms should in fact map" + }, + { + "start": 1517.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these these rhythms should in fact map onto<00:25:17.600> these<00:25:17.919> layers<00:25:18.080> of<00:25:18.240> cortex.<00:25:19.120> Well,<00:25:19.360> in" + }, + { + "start": 1519.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "onto these layers of cortex. Well, in" + }, + { + "start": 1519.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "onto these layers of cortex. Well, in fact,<00:25:19.679> they<00:25:19.919> do,<00:25:20.080> or<00:25:20.240> else<00:25:20.480> I<00:25:20.640> probably" + }, + { + "start": 1520.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fact, they do, or else I probably" + }, + { + "start": 1520.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fact, they do, or else I probably wouldn't<00:25:21.200> be<00:25:21.360> talking<00:25:21.600> about<00:25:21.760> it.<00:25:22.320> We've<00:25:22.799> mass" + }, + { + "start": 1523.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wouldn't be talking about it. We've mass" + }, + { + "start": 1523.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wouldn't be talking about it. We've mass evidence<00:25:23.520> and<00:25:24.000> and<00:25:24.240> developed<00:25:24.559> a<00:25:24.799> model<00:25:24.960> where" + }, + { + "start": 1525.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "evidence and and developed a model where" + }, + { + "start": 1525.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "evidence and and developed a model where we<00:25:25.360> show<00:25:25.520> that<00:25:25.679> the<00:25:26.240> feedback<00:25:26.720> information" + }, + { + "start": 1527.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we show that the feedback information" + }, + { + "start": 1527.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we show that the feedback information carried<00:25:27.600> by<00:25:27.760> alpha<00:25:28.240> beta<00:25:28.559> is<00:25:28.799> feeding<00:25:29.120> back" + }, + { + "start": 1529.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "carried by alpha beta is feeding back" + }, + { + "start": 1529.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "carried by alpha beta is feeding back information<00:25:29.919> in<00:25:30.159> cortex<00:25:31.200> and<00:25:31.440> that<00:25:32.000> has<00:25:32.240> an" + }, + { + "start": 1532.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information in cortex and that has an" + }, + { + "start": 1532.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information in cortex and that has an inhibitory<00:25:33.039> influence<00:25:33.760> on<00:25:34.000> the<00:25:34.159> gamma<00:25:34.880> being" + }, + { + "start": 1535.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "inhibitory influence on the gamma being" + }, + { + "start": 1535.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "inhibitory influence on the gamma being and<00:25:35.600> spiking<00:25:36.080> being<00:25:36.320> fed<00:25:36.640> forward,<00:25:37.279> sensory" + }, + { + "start": 1537.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and spiking being fed forward, sensory" + }, + { + "start": 1537.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and spiking being fed forward, sensory information<00:25:38.080> being<00:25:38.320> fed<00:25:38.559> forward<00:25:38.799> in<00:25:38.960> the" + }, + { + "start": 1539.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information being fed forward in the" + }, + { + "start": 1539.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information being fed forward in the superficial<00:25:39.760> layers<00:25:39.919> of<00:25:40.080> cortex." + }, + { + "start": 1541.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "superficial layers of cortex." + }, + { + "start": 1541.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "superficial layers of cortex. And<00:25:41.919> I<00:25:42.080> mentioned<00:25:42.320> this<00:25:42.480> because<00:25:42.720> we've<00:25:43.039> we" + }, + { + "start": 1543.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And I mentioned this because we've we" + }, + { + "start": 1543.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And I mentioned this because we've we first<00:25:43.600> developed<00:25:44.080> this<00:25:44.320> this<00:25:44.799> uh<00:25:45.039> found<00:25:45.520> made" + }, + { + "start": 1545.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "first developed this this uh found made" + }, + { + "start": 1545.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "first developed this this uh found made this<00:25:46.000> discovery<00:25:46.640> in<00:25:46.880> the<00:25:47.039> frontal<00:25:47.360> cortex." + }, + { + "start": 1548.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this discovery in the frontal cortex." + }, + { + "start": 1548.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this discovery in the frontal cortex. We've<00:25:48.480> since<00:25:48.880> since<00:25:49.200> branched<00:25:49.600> out<00:25:49.760> and" + }, + { + "start": 1549.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "We've since since branched out and" + }, + { + "start": 1549.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "We've since since branched out and studied<00:25:50.400> all<00:25:50.640> over<00:25:50.880> cortex<00:25:51.360> and<00:25:51.520> we<00:25:51.679> saw<00:25:51.840> the" + }, + { + "start": 1552.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "studied all over cortex and we saw the" + }, + { + "start": 1552.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "studied all over cortex and we saw the same<00:25:52.400> motif<00:25:53.679> gamma<00:25:54.159> feed<00:25:54.480> forward<00:25:54.880> bottom<00:25:55.279> up" + }, + { + "start": 1555.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "same motif gamma feed forward bottom up" + }, + { + "start": 1555.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "same motif gamma feed forward bottom up sensory<00:25:56.960> alpha<00:25:57.360> beta<00:25:58.240> um<00:25:58.480> feedback<00:25:59.760> ex" + }, + { + "start": 1559.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sensory alpha beta um feedback ex" + }, + { + "start": 1559.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sensory alpha beta um feedback ex executive<00:26:00.320> control<00:26:00.880> we've<00:26:01.120> seen<00:26:01.360> the<00:26:01.600> same" + }, + { + "start": 1561.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "executive control we've seen the same" + }, + { + "start": 1561.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "executive control we've seen the same theme<00:26:02.880> all<00:26:03.120> over<00:26:03.440> cortex<00:26:04.240> 20<00:26:04.480> plus<00:26:04.799> cortical" + }, + { + "start": 1565.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "theme all over cortex 20 plus cortical" + }, + { + "start": 1565.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "theme all over cortex 20 plus cortical layers<00:26:05.679> and<00:26:05.919> in<00:26:06.080> four<00:26:06.320> different<00:26:06.559> species<00:26:07.360> and" + }, + { + "start": 1567.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "layers and in four different species and" + }, + { + "start": 1567.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "layers and in four different species and when<00:26:07.760> you<00:26:07.919> see<00:26:08.159> something<00:26:08.559> this<00:26:08.880> common<00:26:09.120> and" + }, + { + "start": 1569.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "when you see something this common and" + }, + { + "start": 1569.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "when you see something this common and this<00:26:09.600> ubiquitous<00:26:10.080> across<00:26:10.400> cortex<00:26:10.880> and<00:26:11.039> across" + }, + { + "start": 1571.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this ubiquitous across cortex and across" + }, + { + "start": 1571.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this ubiquitous across cortex and across species<00:26:12.159> you<00:26:12.320> know<00:26:12.480> it's<00:26:12.720> doing<00:26:12.880> something" + }, + { + "start": 1573.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "species you know it's doing something" + }, + { + "start": 1573.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "species you know it's doing something fundamental<00:26:13.679> to<00:26:13.840> cortical<00:26:14.320> function" + }, + { + "start": 1576.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fundamental to cortical function" + }, + { + "start": 1576.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fundamental to cortical function and<00:26:16.640> here's<00:26:16.880> the<00:26:17.039> way<00:26:17.120> it<00:26:17.360> works.<00:26:17.840> And<00:26:17.919> here's" + }, + { + "start": 1578.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and here's the way it works. And here's" + }, + { + "start": 1578.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and here's the way it works. And here's how<00:26:19.039> can<00:26:19.200> I<00:26:20.080> can<00:26:20.320> I<00:26:20.480> ask<00:26:20.640> a<00:26:20.880> question?<00:26:21.600> Uh<00:26:21.919> so<00:26:22.480> uh" + }, + { + "start": 1582.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "how can I can I ask a question? Uh so uh" + }, + { + "start": 1582.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "how can I can I ask a question? Uh so uh in<00:26:22.799> the<00:26:22.960> previous<00:26:23.279> slide<00:26:23.520> or<00:26:24.080> two<00:26:24.240> slides<00:26:24.559> ago" + }, + { + "start": 1585.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in the previous slide or two slides ago" + }, + { + "start": 1585.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in the previous slide or two slides ago um<00:26:26.000> I<00:26:26.320> think<00:26:26.559> the<00:26:26.799> one<00:26:27.039> before<00:26:27.360> this<00:26:28.400> uh<00:26:29.760> yeah" + }, + { + "start": 1590.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um I think the one before this uh yeah" + }, + { + "start": 1590.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um I think the one before this uh yeah so<00:26:30.559> I<00:26:30.799> think<00:26:31.200> uh<00:26:31.360> what<00:26:31.600> you<00:26:32.480> uh<00:26:32.640> said<00:26:32.880> here<00:26:33.120> is" + }, + { + "start": 1593.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "so I think uh what you uh said here is" + }, + { + "start": 1593.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "so I think uh what you uh said here is that<00:26:33.840> the<00:26:34.000> the<00:26:34.400> waves<00:26:34.799> and<00:26:35.039> the<00:26:35.200> spikes<00:26:35.679> are" + }, + { + "start": 1596.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that the the waves and the spikes are" + }, + { + "start": 1596.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that the the waves and the spikes are phase<00:26:36.640> loft<00:26:37.120> right?" + }, + { + "start": 1597.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "phase loft right?" + }, + { + "start": 1597.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "phase loft right? >> Yeah." + }, + { + "start": 1598.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yeah." + }, + { + "start": 1598.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yeah. >> Uh<00:26:39.039> and<00:26:39.200> the<00:26:39.440> next<00:26:39.600> slide<00:26:40.400> uh<00:26:40.880> you<00:26:41.120> showed<00:26:41.360> that" + }, + { + "start": 1601.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Uh and the next slide uh you showed that" + }, + { + "start": 1601.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Uh and the next slide uh you showed that uh<00:26:42.559> uh<00:26:42.720> they<00:26:43.039> have<00:26:43.200> this<00:26:43.520> sort<00:26:43.679> of<00:26:44.080> uh" + }, + { + "start": 1604.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh uh they have this sort of uh" + }, + { + "start": 1604.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh uh they have this sort of uh inhibitory<00:26:44.960> effect.<00:26:45.279> The<00:26:45.440> waves<00:26:45.760> have" + }, + { + "start": 1605.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "inhibitory effect. The waves have" + }, + { + "start": 1606.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "inhibitory effect. The waves have inhibited<00:26:46.720> effect<00:26:46.880> on<00:26:47.039> the<00:26:47.200> spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1607.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "inhibited effect on the spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1607.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "inhibited effect on the spiking activity.<00:26:48.320> So<00:26:48.400> that<00:26:48.559> means<00:26:48.799> that<00:26:48.960> they<00:26:49.200> cannot" + }, + { + "start": 1609.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "activity. So that means that they cannot" + }, + { + "start": 1609.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "activity. So that means that they cannot be<00:26:49.520> faced<00:26:49.840> off<00:26:50.080> like<00:26:50.240> they<00:26:50.720> there<00:26:50.880> has<00:26:51.039> to<00:26:51.120> be" + }, + { + "start": 1611.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "be faced off like they there has to be" + }, + { + "start": 1611.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "be faced off like they there has to be some<00:26:51.440> sort<00:26:51.520> of<00:26:51.679> temporal<00:26:52.320> separation<00:26:52.960> between" + }, + { + "start": 1613.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "some sort of temporal separation between" + }, + { + "start": 1613.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "some sort of temporal separation between the" + }, + { + "start": 1613.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the" + }, + { + "start": 1613.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the >> well<00:26:53.760> there's<00:26:53.919> a<00:26:54.080> lot<00:26:54.159> of<00:26:54.320> electrical<00:26:54.720> there's" + }, + { + "start": 1614.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> well there's a lot of electrical there's" + }, + { + "start": 1614.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> well there's a lot of electrical there's a<00:26:55.039> lot<00:26:55.120> of<00:26:55.520> electrical<00:26:56.159> influences<00:26:56.799> going<00:26:56.960> on" + }, + { + "start": 1617.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a lot of electrical influences going on" + }, + { + "start": 1617.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a lot of electrical influences going on that<00:26:57.440> that's<00:26:57.840> that<00:26:58.080> that's<00:26:58.559> beyond<00:26:59.039> spiking." + }, + { + "start": 1619.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that that's that that's beyond spiking." + }, + { + "start": 1619.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that that's that that's beyond spiking. Okay<00:26:59.840> spiking<00:27:00.640> your<00:27:00.880> average<00:27:01.200> cortical" + }, + { + "start": 1621.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Okay spiking your average cortical" + }, + { + "start": 1621.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Okay spiking your average cortical neuron<00:27:01.919> only<00:27:02.159> spikes<00:27:02.480> about<00:27:02.720> 10<00:27:02.960> to<00:27:03.120> 15<00:27:03.440> hertz" + }, + { + "start": 1623.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuron only spikes about 10 to 15 hertz" + }, + { + "start": 1623.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuron only spikes about 10 to 15 hertz and<00:27:04.000> it<00:27:04.159> gives<00:27:04.400> little<00:27:04.559> bursts<00:27:04.799> of<00:27:04.960> spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1625.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and it gives little bursts of spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1625.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and it gives little bursts of spiking then<00:27:05.520> it's<00:27:05.679> quiet<00:27:05.919> most<00:27:06.159> time<00:27:06.640> little<00:27:06.799> burst" + }, + { + "start": 1627.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "then it's quiet most time little burst" + }, + { + "start": 1627.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "then it's quiet most time little burst of<00:27:07.200> spiking.<00:27:08.080> So<00:27:08.640> much<00:27:08.880> of<00:27:08.960> the<00:27:09.120> activity" + }, + { + "start": 1629.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of spiking. So much of the activity" + }, + { + "start": 1629.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of spiking. So much of the activity going<00:27:09.760> on<00:27:10.080> in<00:27:10.320> your<00:27:10.480> cortex<00:27:10.880> is<00:27:11.120> actually" + }, + { + "start": 1631.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "going on in your cortex is actually" + }, + { + "start": 1631.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "going on in your cortex is actually electrical<00:27:11.760> waves<00:27:12.000> which<00:27:12.159> are<00:27:12.240> happening" + }, + { + "start": 1632.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical waves which are happening" + }, + { + "start": 1632.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical waves which are happening 100%<00:27:13.039> of<00:27:13.120> the<00:27:13.360> time.<00:27:13.760> So<00:27:13.919> a<00:27:14.080> lot<00:27:14.159> of<00:27:14.240> those" + }, + { + "start": 1634.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "100% of the time. So a lot of those" + }, + { + "start": 1634.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "100% of the time. So a lot of those influences<00:27:14.880> are<00:27:15.039> happening<00:27:15.200> independ" + }, + { + "start": 1635.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "influences are happening independ" + }, + { + "start": 1635.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "influences are happening independ independent<00:27:16.320> of<00:27:16.480> spiking." + }, + { + "start": 1640.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Thank<00:27:20.159> you." + }, + { + "start": 1640.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Thank you." + }, + { + "start": 1640.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Thank you. >> Can<00:27:20.960> I<00:27:21.120> ask<00:27:21.840> another<00:27:22.320> question?" + }, + { + "start": 1643.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Can I ask another question?" + }, + { + "start": 1643.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Can I ask another question? >> Uh<00:27:23.360> I<00:27:23.760> if<00:27:24.159> if<00:27:24.400> it's<00:27:24.640> really<00:27:24.880> important<00:27:25.279> yes<00:27:25.520> but" + }, + { + "start": 1645.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Uh I if if it's really important yes but" + }, + { + "start": 1645.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Uh I if if it's really important yes but but<00:27:25.919> if<00:27:26.080> I<00:27:26.159> keep<00:27:26.320> getting<00:27:26.480> interruptions<00:27:26.880> then" + }, + { + "start": 1647.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "but if I keep getting interruptions then" + }, + { + "start": 1647.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "but if I keep getting interruptions then we're" + }, + { + "start": 1647.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we're" + }, + { + "start": 1647.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we're >> okay<00:27:27.840> I<00:27:27.919> will<00:27:28.080> ask<00:27:28.320> later." + }, + { + "start": 1648.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> okay I will ask later." + }, + { + "start": 1648.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> okay I will ask later. >> Yeah<00:27:28.960> please<00:27:29.120> ask<00:27:29.200> for<00:27:29.440> later.<00:27:29.679> Otherwise<00:27:30.000> you" + }, + { + "start": 1650.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yeah please ask for later. Otherwise you" + }, + { + "start": 1650.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yeah please ask for later. Otherwise you know<00:27:30.240> you<00:27:30.480> when<00:27:30.640> you<00:27:30.720> give<00:27:30.799> a<00:27:31.039> talk<00:27:31.200> somewhere" + }, + { + "start": 1651.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know you when you give a talk somewhere" + }, + { + "start": 1651.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know you when you give a talk somewhere you<00:27:31.679> time<00:27:31.840> at<00:27:32.000> a<00:27:32.159> certain<00:27:32.400> time<00:27:32.960> and<00:27:33.120> then<00:27:33.279> if" + }, + { + "start": 1653.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you time at a certain time and then if" + }, + { + "start": 1653.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you time at a certain time and then if you<00:27:33.440> get<00:27:33.600> interruptions<00:27:34.080> then<00:27:34.320> you<00:27:34.480> go<00:27:34.559> long" + }, + { + "start": 1654.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you get interruptions then you go long" + }, + { + "start": 1654.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you get interruptions then you go long and<00:27:34.960> if<00:27:35.039> you<00:27:35.200> don't<00:27:35.360> and<00:27:35.520> if<00:27:35.600> you<00:27:35.760> don't<00:27:35.840> get" + }, + { + "start": 1655.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and if you don't and if you don't get" + }, + { + "start": 1655.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and if you don't and if you don't get interruptions<00:27:36.320> then<00:27:36.480> you<00:27:36.640> go<00:27:36.799> short.<00:27:37.120> So<00:27:37.760> I'm" + }, + { + "start": 1657.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "interruptions then you go short. So I'm" + }, + { + "start": 1658.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "interruptions then you go short. So I'm not<00:27:38.480> if<00:27:38.640> you<00:27:38.720> have<00:27:38.880> to<00:27:39.039> something<00:27:39.360> something" + }, + { + "start": 1659.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "not if you have to something something" + }, + { + "start": 1659.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "not if you have to something something is<00:27:39.840> really<00:27:40.000> unclear<00:27:40.559> please<00:27:40.799> stop<00:27:41.039> me.<00:27:41.279> But" + }, + { + "start": 1661.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is really unclear please stop me. But" + }, + { + "start": 1661.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is really unclear please stop me. But other<00:27:41.600> than<00:27:41.679> that,<00:27:41.840> I<00:27:42.000> I<00:27:42.320> hope<00:27:42.480> we<00:27:42.640> can<00:27:42.720> save" + }, + { + "start": 1662.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "other than that, I I hope we can save" + }, + { + "start": 1662.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "other than that, I I hope we can save questions<00:27:43.200> for<00:27:43.440> the<00:27:43.600> end,<00:27:44.400> please." + }, + { + "start": 1667.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "questions for the end, please." + }, + { + "start": 1667.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "questions for the end, please. But<00:27:47.200> thank<00:27:47.360> you<00:27:47.520> for<00:27:47.679> your<00:27:47.840> interest." + }, + { + "start": 1669.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But thank you for your interest." + }, + { + "start": 1669.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But thank you for your interest. Okay.<00:27:50.400> So,<00:27:50.640> here's<00:27:50.880> how<00:27:51.039> it<00:27:51.279> works.<00:27:52.240> Um,<00:27:52.480> and" + }, + { + "start": 1672.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Okay. So, here's how it works. Um, and" + }, + { + "start": 1672.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Okay. So, here's how it works. Um, and here's<00:27:53.120> how<00:27:53.279> we're<00:27:53.440> going<00:27:53.520> to<00:27:53.679> how<00:27:53.840> these<00:27:54.159> this" + }, + { + "start": 1674.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "here's how we're going to how these this" + }, + { + "start": 1674.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "here's how we're going to how these this this<00:27:55.039> idea<00:27:55.360> of<00:27:55.760> these<00:27:56.000> these<00:27:56.320> gamma<00:27:56.880> and<00:27:57.120> beta" + }, + { + "start": 1678.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this idea of these these gamma and beta" + }, + { + "start": 1678.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this idea of these these gamma and beta um<00:27:58.399> influences<00:27:59.120> can<00:27:59.360> explain<00:27:59.679> this<00:27:59.919> prop.<00:28:00.559> We" + }, + { + "start": 1681.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um influences can explain this prop. We" + }, + { + "start": 1681.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um influences can explain this prop. We explain<00:28:01.440> this<00:28:01.600> property<00:28:01.840> of<00:28:02.240> big<00:28:02.399> selectivity" + }, + { + "start": 1682.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "explain this property of big selectivity" + }, + { + "start": 1682.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "explain this property of big selectivity I<00:28:02.960> told<00:28:03.120> you<00:28:03.200> about<00:28:03.440> earlier.<00:28:04.000> We<00:28:04.159> incorporate" + }, + { + "start": 1684.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I told you about earlier. We incorporate" + }, + { + "start": 1684.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I told you about earlier. We incorporate this<00:28:04.960> model<00:28:05.279> called<00:28:05.600> spatial<00:28:06.080> computing.<00:28:06.880> And" + }, + { + "start": 1687.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this model called spatial computing. And" + }, + { + "start": 1687.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this model called spatial computing. And the<00:28:07.200> idea<00:28:07.360> is<00:28:07.520> these<00:28:07.760> alpha<00:28:08.159> beta<00:28:08.880> are<00:28:09.120> having" + }, + { + "start": 1689.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the idea is these alpha beta are having" + }, + { + "start": 1689.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the idea is these alpha beta are having this<00:28:09.520> inhibitory<00:28:10.080> influence<00:28:10.399> on<00:28:10.640> spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1691.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this inhibitory influence on spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1691.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this inhibitory influence on spiking activity<00:28:11.360> in<00:28:11.600> cortex<00:28:12.240> and<00:28:12.480> they<00:28:12.640> act<00:28:12.799> as<00:28:13.039> a" + }, + { + "start": 1693.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "activity in cortex and they act as a" + }, + { + "start": 1693.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "activity in cortex and they act as a negative<00:28:13.679> network<00:28:14.080> space<00:28:14.799> that<00:28:15.039> the<00:28:15.279> brain" + }, + { + "start": 1695.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "negative network space that the brain" + }, + { + "start": 1695.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "negative network space that the brain uses<00:28:15.760> as<00:28:15.919> a<00:28:16.000> coding<00:28:16.320> dimension.<00:28:17.200> So" + }, + { + "start": 1697.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uses as a coding dimension. So" + }, + { + "start": 1697.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uses as a coding dimension. So essentially<00:28:17.919> what<00:28:18.240> gamma<00:28:18.720> gamma<00:28:19.120> and<00:28:19.279> spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1699.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "essentially what gamma gamma and spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1700.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "essentially what gamma gamma and spiking is<00:28:20.240> kind<00:28:20.399> of<00:28:20.480> like<00:28:20.640> spray<00:28:21.039> paint<00:28:21.360> spraying" + }, + { + "start": 1701.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is kind of like spray paint spraying" + }, + { + "start": 1701.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is kind of like spray paint spraying energy<00:28:22.159> into<00:28:22.399> into<00:28:23.200> your<00:28:23.440> cortex<00:28:24.480> from<00:28:24.720> the" + }, + { + "start": 1704.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "energy into into your cortex from the" + }, + { + "start": 1704.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "energy into into your cortex from the outside<00:28:25.279> world<00:28:25.679> sensory<00:28:26.159> information.<00:28:27.200> And" + }, + { + "start": 1707.35, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "outside world sensory information. And" + }, + { + "start": 1707.36, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "outside world sensory information. And these<00:28:27.679> alpha<00:28:28.080> beta<00:28:28.480> signals<00:28:29.279> act<00:28:29.520> like" + }, + { + "start": 1710.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these alpha beta signals act like" + }, + { + "start": 1710.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these alpha beta signals act like stencils<00:28:31.200> that<00:28:31.840> prevent<00:28:32.720> neurons<00:28:33.279> from" + }, + { + "start": 1713.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stencils that prevent neurons from" + }, + { + "start": 1713.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stencils that prevent neurons from spiking.<00:28:34.640> And<00:28:34.880> as<00:28:35.039> a<00:28:35.279> result,<00:28:35.679> the<00:28:35.919> spiking<00:28:37.120> um" + }, + { + "start": 1717.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking. And as a result, the spiking um" + }, + { + "start": 1717.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking. And as a result, the spiking um um<00:28:37.600> being<00:28:38.240> um<00:28:38.559> associated<00:28:38.960> with<00:28:39.120> sensory" + }, + { + "start": 1719.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um being um associated with sensory" + }, + { + "start": 1719.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um being um associated with sensory information<00:28:40.080> can<00:28:40.320> only<00:28:40.640> be<00:28:40.799> expressed<00:28:41.360> in" + }, + { + "start": 1721.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information can only be expressed in" + }, + { + "start": 1721.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information can only be expressed in certain<00:28:41.919> parts<00:28:42.159> of<00:28:42.240> your<00:28:42.480> cortex,<00:28:42.960> not" + }, + { + "start": 1723.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "certain parts of your cortex, not" + }, + { + "start": 1723.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "certain parts of your cortex, not everywhere.<00:28:44.000> And<00:28:44.159> your<00:28:44.399> brain<00:28:44.720> controls" + }, + { + "start": 1725.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "everywhere. And your brain controls" + }, + { + "start": 1725.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "everywhere. And your brain controls these<00:28:45.520> alpha<00:28:45.919> beta<00:28:46.480> um<00:28:46.640> influences<00:28:47.279> like" + }, + { + "start": 1727.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these alpha beta um influences like" + }, + { + "start": 1727.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these alpha beta um influences like stencils<00:28:48.399> to<00:28:48.720> control<00:28:49.360> where<00:28:49.679> your<00:28:49.840> brain" + }, + { + "start": 1730.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stencils to control where your brain" + }, + { + "start": 1730.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stencils to control where your brain cortex<00:28:50.720> can<00:28:50.880> become<00:28:51.120> activated<00:28:51.760> and<00:28:52.000> it<00:28:52.159> uses" + }, + { + "start": 1732.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex can become activated and it uses" + }, + { + "start": 1732.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex can become activated and it uses as<00:28:52.640> a<00:28:52.799> computational<00:28:53.440> tool.<00:28:54.799> So<00:28:55.039> explain<00:28:55.360> in" + }, + { + "start": 1735.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "as a computational tool. So explain in" + }, + { + "start": 1735.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "as a computational tool. So explain in terms<00:28:55.679> of<00:28:55.760> mixed<00:28:56.000> selectivity.<00:28:56.640> Remember<00:28:56.799> we" + }, + { + "start": 1736.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "terms of mixed selectivity. Remember we" + }, + { + "start": 1736.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "terms of mixed selectivity. Remember we had<00:28:57.039> these<00:28:57.279> neurons<00:28:57.679> that<00:28:57.840> show<00:28:58.000> this<00:28:58.559> context" + }, + { + "start": 1739.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "had these neurons that show this context" + }, + { + "start": 1739.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "had these neurons that show this context nonlinear" + }, + { + "start": 1740.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "nonlinear" + }, + { + "start": 1740.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "nonlinear um<00:29:01.039> context<00:29:01.440> dependent<00:29:01.919> spiking<00:29:02.559> where<00:29:02.720> a" + }, + { + "start": 1742.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um context dependent spiking where a" + }, + { + "start": 1742.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um context dependent spiking where a neuron<00:29:03.200> will<00:29:03.360> show<00:29:03.600> one<00:29:03.840> pattern<00:29:04.159> of" + }, + { + "start": 1744.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuron will show one pattern of" + }, + { + "start": 1744.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuron will show one pattern of selectivity<00:29:05.120> for<00:29:05.360> these<00:29:05.600> objects<00:29:06.000> in<00:29:06.240> one" + }, + { + "start": 1746.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "selectivity for these objects in one" + }, + { + "start": 1746.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "selectivity for these objects in one context<00:29:07.440> first<00:29:08.320> and<00:29:08.559> another<00:29:09.200> um<00:29:09.440> pattern<00:29:09.760> of" + }, + { + "start": 1749.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context first and another um pattern of" + }, + { + "start": 1750.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context first and another um pattern of selectivity<00:29:11.120> to<00:29:11.360> these<00:29:11.600> objects<00:29:12.080> spiking<00:29:12.480> to" + }, + { + "start": 1752.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "selectivity to these objects spiking to" + }, + { + "start": 1752.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "selectivity to these objects spiking to these<00:29:12.799> objects<00:29:13.200> in<00:29:13.440> another<00:29:13.760> context<00:29:14.640> that" + }, + { + "start": 1754.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these objects in another context that" + }, + { + "start": 1754.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these objects in another context that can<00:29:15.039> be<00:29:15.120> explained<00:29:15.440> by<00:29:15.600> these<00:29:15.840> alpha<00:29:16.159> beta" + }, + { + "start": 1756.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "can be explained by these alpha beta" + }, + { + "start": 1756.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "can be explained by these alpha beta stencils.<00:29:16.960> The<00:29:17.200> idea<00:29:17.279> is<00:29:17.520> there's<00:29:17.840> one<00:29:18.559> alpha" + }, + { + "start": 1759.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stencils. The idea is there's one alpha" + }, + { + "start": 1759.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stencils. The idea is there's one alpha beta<00:29:19.440> stencil<00:29:20.320> a<00:29:20.480> pattern<00:29:20.799> that<00:29:21.039> corresponds" + }, + { + "start": 1761.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "beta stencil a pattern that corresponds" + }, + { + "start": 1761.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "beta stencil a pattern that corresponds to<00:29:21.840> the<00:29:22.000> operation<00:29:22.480> of<00:29:22.720> being<00:29:22.960> first<00:29:24.240> and<00:29:24.480> as<00:29:24.640> a" + }, + { + "start": 1764.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to the operation of being first and as a" + }, + { + "start": 1764.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to the operation of being first and as a result<00:29:25.120> these<00:29:25.360> neurons<00:29:25.840> can't<00:29:26.159> spike<00:29:26.640> and" + }, + { + "start": 1766.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "result these neurons can't spike and" + }, + { + "start": 1766.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "result these neurons can't spike and only<00:29:27.120> these<00:29:27.440> neurons<00:29:27.840> can<00:29:28.000> spike<00:29:28.320> to<00:29:28.480> the" + }, + { + "start": 1768.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "only these neurons can spike to the" + }, + { + "start": 1768.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "only these neurons can spike to the butterfly<00:29:29.039> if<00:29:29.200> that's<00:29:29.360> the<00:29:29.600> thing<00:29:29.679> that" + }, + { + "start": 1769.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "butterfly if that's the thing that" + }, + { + "start": 1769.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "butterfly if that's the thing that happens<00:29:30.159> to<00:29:30.320> appear<00:29:30.720> first.<00:29:31.760> And<00:29:31.919> then<00:29:32.080> you" + }, + { + "start": 1772.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "happens to appear first. And then you" + }, + { + "start": 1772.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "happens to appear first. And then you have<00:29:32.320> another<00:29:32.640> pattern<00:29:32.960> that<00:29:33.200> corresponds<00:29:33.760> to" + }, + { + "start": 1773.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have another pattern that corresponds to" + }, + { + "start": 1773.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have another pattern that corresponds to the<00:29:34.080> operation<00:29:34.640> the<00:29:34.880> context<00:29:35.520> of<00:29:35.840> being" + }, + { + "start": 1776.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the operation the context of being" + }, + { + "start": 1776.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the operation the context of being second.<00:29:36.960> And<00:29:37.120> now<00:29:37.360> only<00:29:37.679> these<00:29:37.919> neurons<00:29:38.399> can" + }, + { + "start": 1778.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "second. And now only these neurons can" + }, + { + "start": 1778.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "second. And now only these neurons can respond.<00:29:39.520> These<00:29:39.760> neurons<00:29:40.080> that<00:29:40.240> are<00:29:40.399> not" + }, + { + "start": 1780.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "respond. These neurons that are not" + }, + { + "start": 1780.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "respond. These neurons that are not being<00:29:40.720> inhibited<00:29:41.679> only<00:29:41.919> they<00:29:42.240> can<00:29:42.399> respond<00:29:42.720> to" + }, + { + "start": 1782.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "being inhibited only they can respond to" + }, + { + "start": 1782.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "being inhibited only they can respond to the<00:29:42.960> padlock.<00:29:43.919> and<00:29:44.080> you<00:29:44.240> just<00:29:44.399> change<00:29:44.640> the" + }, + { + "start": 1784.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the padlock. and you just change the" + }, + { + "start": 1784.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the padlock. and you just change the different<00:29:45.039> objects<00:29:45.360> and<00:29:45.600> you<00:29:45.760> get<00:29:45.919> different" + }, + { + "start": 1786.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different objects and you get different" + }, + { + "start": 1786.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different objects and you get different patterns<00:29:46.480> of<00:29:46.640> neurons<00:29:47.200> corresponding<00:29:47.760> to<00:29:48.000> the" + }, + { + "start": 1788.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns of neurons corresponding to the" + }, + { + "start": 1788.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns of neurons corresponding to the different<00:29:48.880> being<00:29:49.200> allowed<00:29:49.520> to<00:29:49.679> respond<00:29:50.000> to" + }, + { + "start": 1790.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different being allowed to respond to" + }, + { + "start": 1790.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different being allowed to respond to the<00:29:50.320> different<00:29:50.480> objects<00:29:50.880> in<00:29:51.120> different" + }, + { + "start": 1791.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the different objects in different" + }, + { + "start": 1791.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the different objects in different contexts<00:29:51.919> and<00:29:52.159> that's<00:29:52.320> how<00:29:52.480> you<00:29:52.640> get<00:29:52.720> this" + }, + { + "start": 1792.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "contexts and that's how you get this" + }, + { + "start": 1792.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "contexts and that's how you get this context<00:29:54.000> nonlinear<00:29:54.960> dependent<00:29:55.360> behavior.<00:29:55.919> So" + }, + { + "start": 1796.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context nonlinear dependent behavior. So" + }, + { + "start": 1796.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context nonlinear dependent behavior. So the<00:29:56.240> alpha<00:29:56.559> beta<00:29:56.880> patterns<00:29:57.200> control<00:29:57.520> which" + }, + { + "start": 1797.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the alpha beta patterns control which" + }, + { + "start": 1797.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the alpha beta patterns control which neurons<00:29:58.159> can<00:29:58.399> spike<00:29:58.880> in<00:29:59.039> the<00:29:59.279> different" + }, + { + "start": 1799.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons can spike in the different" + }, + { + "start": 1799.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons can spike in the different behavioral<00:30:00.080> contexts" + }, + { + "start": 1801.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "behavioral contexts" + }, + { + "start": 1801.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "behavioral contexts and<00:30:02.080> this<00:30:02.320> results<00:30:02.640> in<00:30:02.799> neurons<00:30:03.120> with<00:30:03.279> this" + }, + { + "start": 1803.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and this results in neurons with this" + }, + { + "start": 1803.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and this results in neurons with this context<00:30:04.000> dependent<00:30:04.320> spiking<00:30:04.880> and<00:30:05.120> all<00:30:05.279> the" + }, + { + "start": 1805.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context dependent spiking and all the" + }, + { + "start": 1805.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context dependent spiking and all the computational<00:30:06.000> benefits<00:30:06.399> of<00:30:06.559> mix" + }, + { + "start": 1806.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computational benefits of mix" + }, + { + "start": 1806.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computational benefits of mix selectivity." + }, + { + "start": 1809.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "selectivity." + }, + { + "start": 1809.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "selectivity. So<00:30:10.559> why<00:30:10.880> why<00:30:11.360> so<00:30:11.679> what<00:30:11.919> this<00:30:12.080> brings<00:30:12.320> us<00:30:12.480> to<00:30:12.640> is" + }, + { + "start": 1812.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So why why so what this brings us to is" + }, + { + "start": 1812.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So why why so what this brings us to is the<00:30:12.960> idea<00:30:13.200> that<00:30:13.440> brain<00:30:13.679> waves<00:30:14.000> are<00:30:14.159> ideal<00:30:14.559> for" + }, + { + "start": 1814.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the idea that brain waves are ideal for" + }, + { + "start": 1814.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the idea that brain waves are ideal for control<00:30:15.360> and<00:30:15.520> organization<00:30:16.080> your<00:30:16.320> cortex<00:30:16.640> for" + }, + { + "start": 1816.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "control and organization your cortex for" + }, + { + "start": 1816.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "control and organization your cortex for exerting<00:30:17.279> this<00:30:17.440> top<00:30:17.760> down<00:30:18.000> control<00:30:18.320> over<00:30:18.799> over" + }, + { + "start": 1819.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "exerting this top down control over over" + }, + { + "start": 1819.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "exerting this top down control over over cortex<00:30:20.320> wave<00:30:20.720> functions<00:30:21.039> are<00:30:21.279> simple<00:30:21.520> and" + }, + { + "start": 1821.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex wave functions are simple and" + }, + { + "start": 1821.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex wave functions are simple and efficient<00:30:22.159> imagine<00:30:22.480> that<00:30:22.720> I<00:30:22.960> want<00:30:23.039> to<00:30:23.840> control" + }, + { + "start": 1824.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "efficient imagine that I want to control" + }, + { + "start": 1824.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "efficient imagine that I want to control all<00:30:24.720> these<00:30:24.960> neurons<00:30:25.360> in<00:30:25.600> my<00:30:25.840> brain<00:30:26.399> in<00:30:26.640> order" + }, + { + "start": 1826.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "all these neurons in my brain in order" + }, + { + "start": 1826.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "all these neurons in my brain in order to<00:30:26.960> do<00:30:27.120> something<00:30:27.440> like<00:30:27.679> pay<00:30:27.840> attention" + }, + { + "start": 1828.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to do something like pay attention" + }, + { + "start": 1828.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to do something like pay attention process<00:30:29.120> what<00:30:29.360> a<00:30:29.600> speaker<00:30:29.919> is<00:30:30.159> saying<00:30:30.559> whatnot" + }, + { + "start": 1831.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "process what a speaker is saying whatnot" + }, + { + "start": 1831.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "process what a speaker is saying whatnot how<00:30:31.520> do<00:30:31.600> you<00:30:31.760> how<00:30:32.000> do<00:30:32.080> you<00:30:32.240> do<00:30:32.480> how<00:30:32.640> do<00:30:32.720> you<00:30:32.880> do" + }, + { + "start": 1832.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "how do you how do you do how do you do" + }, + { + "start": 1832.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "how do you how do you do how do you do that<00:30:33.520> you<00:30:33.760> can't<00:30:33.919> do<00:30:34.080> it<00:30:34.240> by<00:30:34.399> this" + }, + { + "start": 1834.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that you can't do it by this" + }, + { + "start": 1834.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that you can't do it by this connectionism<00:30:35.360> model<00:30:35.840> as<00:30:36.080> I<00:30:36.320> mentioned" + }, + { + "start": 1836.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connectionism model as I mentioned" + }, + { + "start": 1836.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connectionism model as I mentioned earlier<00:30:37.360> because<00:30:37.760> connectionism" + }, + { + "start": 1838.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "earlier because connectionism" + }, + { + "start": 1838.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "earlier because connectionism would<00:30:39.360> require<00:30:40.080> that<00:30:40.399> we<00:30:40.720> shift<00:30:41.039> around" + }, + { + "start": 1841.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "would require that we shift around" + }, + { + "start": 1841.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "would require that we shift around connections<00:30:41.840> constantly<00:30:42.240> induce.<00:30:42.640> We<00:30:42.720> have" + }, + { + "start": 1842.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections constantly induce. We have" + }, + { + "start": 1842.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections constantly induce. We have to<00:30:42.960> change<00:30:43.200> around<00:30:43.520> all<00:30:43.679> the<00:30:43.919> connections<00:30:44.240> in" + }, + { + "start": 1844.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to change around all the connections in" + }, + { + "start": 1844.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to change around all the connections in order<00:30:44.559> to<00:30:44.720> get<00:30:44.880> these<00:30:45.120> context<00:30:46.399> dependent" + }, + { + "start": 1846.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "order to get these context dependent" + }, + { + "start": 1846.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "order to get these context dependent neurons.<00:30:48.240> That<00:30:48.480> seems<00:30:48.799> computationally" + }, + { + "start": 1849.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons. That seems computationally" + }, + { + "start": 1849.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons. That seems computationally intractable.<00:30:50.399> However,<00:30:51.279> wave<00:30:51.679> functions<00:30:52.159> are" + }, + { + "start": 1852.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "intractable. However, wave functions are" + }, + { + "start": 1852.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "intractable. However, wave functions are simple<00:30:52.720> and<00:30:52.960> efficient.<00:30:54.000> Rather<00:30:54.240> than" + }, + { + "start": 1854.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "simple and efficient. Rather than" + }, + { + "start": 1854.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "simple and efficient. Rather than controlling<00:30:54.720> the<00:30:54.880> individuals<00:30:55.279> one<00:30:55.520> by<00:30:55.679> one," + }, + { + "start": 1855.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "controlling the individuals one by one," + }, + { + "start": 1855.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "controlling the individuals one by one, you<00:30:56.080> can<00:30:56.159> use<00:30:56.320> a<00:30:56.480> wave<00:30:56.720> to<00:30:56.880> guide<00:30:57.039> an<00:30:57.279> entire" + }, + { + "start": 1857.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you can use a wave to guide an entire" + }, + { + "start": 1857.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you can use a wave to guide an entire group.<00:30:58.000> and<00:30:58.159> try<00:30:58.240> to<00:30:58.640> if<00:30:58.880> these<00:30:59.360> if<00:30:59.600> these<00:31:00.080> uh" + }, + { + "start": 1860.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "group. and try to if these if these uh" + }, + { + "start": 1860.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "group. and try to if these if these uh people<00:31:00.640> in<00:31:00.880> this<00:31:01.039> crowd<00:31:01.360> here<00:31:01.520> are<00:31:01.840> individual" + }, + { + "start": 1862.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "people in this crowd here are individual" + }, + { + "start": 1862.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "people in this crowd here are individual neurons<00:31:02.799> in<00:31:03.039> my<00:31:03.200> cortex<00:31:04.000> I<00:31:04.240> can<00:31:04.320> produce<00:31:04.640> this" + }, + { + "start": 1864.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons in my cortex I can produce this" + }, + { + "start": 1864.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons in my cortex I can produce this wave<00:31:05.120> pattern<00:31:05.760> under<00:31:06.000> the<00:31:06.159> old<00:31:06.399> hypothesis" + }, + { + "start": 1867.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave pattern under the old hypothesis" + }, + { + "start": 1867.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave pattern under the old hypothesis the<00:31:07.279> connectionism<00:31:08.159> by<00:31:08.399> trying<00:31:08.640> to<00:31:08.799> tell<00:31:09.039> each" + }, + { + "start": 1869.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the connectionism by trying to tell each" + }, + { + "start": 1869.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the connectionism by trying to tell each individual<00:31:10.080> person<00:31:10.480> what<00:31:10.720> to<00:31:10.880> do<00:31:11.760> but<00:31:11.919> if<00:31:12.080> you" + }, + { + "start": 1872.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "individual person what to do but if you" + }, + { + "start": 1872.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "individual person what to do but if you throw<00:31:12.399> this<00:31:12.559> wave<00:31:12.880> function<00:31:13.279> across<00:31:13.600> the" + }, + { + "start": 1873.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "throw this wave function across the" + }, + { + "start": 1873.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "throw this wave function across the crowd<00:31:14.399> now<00:31:14.640> you<00:31:14.880> get<00:31:14.960> a<00:31:15.200> simple<00:31:15.440> function<00:31:16.000> that" + }, + { + "start": 1876.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "crowd now you get a simple function that" + }, + { + "start": 1876.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "crowd now you get a simple function that controls<00:31:16.720> the<00:31:16.880> crowd<00:31:17.120> and<00:31:17.279> makes<00:31:17.520> or" + }, + { + "start": 1877.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "controls the crowd and makes or" + }, + { + "start": 1877.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "controls the crowd and makes or organized<00:31:18.320> behavior" + }, + { + "start": 1879.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organized behavior" + }, + { + "start": 1879.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organized behavior and<00:31:20.159> sure<00:31:20.320> enough<00:31:20.640> your<00:31:20.880> brain<00:31:21.120> does<00:31:21.360> this<00:31:21.520> all" + }, + { + "start": 1881.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and sure enough your brain does this all" + }, + { + "start": 1881.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and sure enough your brain does this all the<00:31:21.919> time<00:31:22.480> so<00:31:22.720> these<00:31:23.120> oscillations<00:31:23.919> these" + }, + { + "start": 1884.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the time so these oscillations these" + }, + { + "start": 1884.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the time so these oscillations these electrical<00:31:24.559> waves<00:31:24.880> I'm<00:31:25.120> talking<00:31:25.360> about" + }, + { + "start": 1885.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical waves I'm talking about" + }, + { + "start": 1885.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical waves I'm talking about they're<00:31:26.080> not<00:31:26.240> just<00:31:26.480> jumping<00:31:26.799> up<00:31:26.960> and<00:31:27.200> down<00:31:27.440> in" + }, + { + "start": 1887.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "they're not just jumping up and down in" + }, + { + "start": 1887.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "they're not just jumping up and down in a<00:31:27.840> like<00:31:28.000> a<00:31:28.240> like<00:31:28.480> a<00:31:28.640> standing<00:31:29.039> wave,<00:31:29.279> like<00:31:29.440> a" + }, + { + "start": 1889.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a like a like a standing wave, like a" + }, + { + "start": 1889.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a like a like a standing wave, like a jump<00:31:29.760> rope.<00:31:30.880> They<00:31:31.120> form<00:31:31.440> patterns<00:31:31.840> that" + }, + { + "start": 1892.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "jump rope. They form patterns that" + }, + { + "start": 1892.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "jump rope. They form patterns that travel<00:31:32.880> and<00:31:33.200> move<00:31:33.440> across<00:31:33.760> your<00:31:34.000> cortex,<00:31:34.799> much" + }, + { + "start": 1895.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "travel and move across your cortex, much" + }, + { + "start": 1895.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "travel and move across your cortex, much like<00:31:35.279> fans<00:31:35.679> doing<00:31:35.840> the<00:31:36.080> wave<00:31:36.320> in<00:31:36.480> a<00:31:36.640> stadium." + }, + { + "start": 1897.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like fans doing the wave in a stadium." + }, + { + "start": 1897.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like fans doing the wave in a stadium. So,<00:31:37.679> here's<00:31:37.919> a<00:31:38.080> recording<00:31:38.480> from<00:31:38.720> the<00:31:39.039> frontal" + }, + { + "start": 1899.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So, here's a recording from the frontal" + }, + { + "start": 1899.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So, here's a recording from the frontal cortex<00:31:39.840> of<00:31:40.000> a<00:31:40.159> non-human<00:31:40.720> primate.<00:31:41.919> And<00:31:42.080> what" + }, + { + "start": 1902.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex of a non-human primate. And what" + }, + { + "start": 1902.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex of a non-human primate. And what it<00:31:42.399> shows<00:31:42.640> is<00:31:42.799> an<00:31:42.960> array<00:31:43.200> of<00:31:43.360> electrodes.<00:31:44.320> The" + }, + { + "start": 1904.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it shows is an array of electrodes. The" + }, + { + "start": 1904.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it shows is an array of electrodes. The arrays<00:31:44.880> are<00:31:45.039> separated<00:31:45.440> by<00:31:45.679> about<00:31:45.840> a" + }, + { + "start": 1906.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "arrays are separated by about a" + }, + { + "start": 1906.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "arrays are separated by about a millimeter<00:31:46.640> or<00:31:46.880> two.<00:31:47.840> Each<00:31:48.080> of<00:31:48.240> the<00:31:48.399> squares" + }, + { + "start": 1908.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "millimeter or two. Each of the squares" + }, + { + "start": 1908.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "millimeter or two. Each of the squares is<00:31:48.960> a<00:31:49.120> different<00:31:49.519> electrode<00:31:50.640> in<00:31:50.799> in<00:31:51.120> the" + }, + { + "start": 1911.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is a different electrode in in the" + }, + { + "start": 1911.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is a different electrode in in the frontal<00:31:52.000> cortex<00:31:52.399> of<00:31:52.559> the<00:31:52.720> animal.<00:31:53.919> And<00:31:54.080> what" + }, + { + "start": 1914.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frontal cortex of the animal. And what" + }, + { + "start": 1914.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frontal cortex of the animal. And what the<00:31:54.480> colors<00:31:54.880> are<00:31:55.200> are<00:31:55.519> electric<00:31:55.919> voltage" + }, + { + "start": 1916.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the colors are are electric voltage" + }, + { + "start": 1916.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the colors are are electric voltage values<00:31:56.799> relative<00:31:57.120> to<00:31:57.279> a<00:31:57.600> reference" + }, + { + "start": 1918.07, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "values relative to a reference" + }, + { + "start": 1918.08, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "values relative to a reference electrode." + }, + { + "start": 1919.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrode." + }, + { + "start": 1919.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrode. And<00:32:00.000> this<00:32:00.240> this<00:32:00.480> is<00:32:00.640> raw<00:32:01.039> unprocessed<00:32:01.840> data." + }, + { + "start": 1923.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And this this is raw unprocessed data." + }, + { + "start": 1923.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And this this is raw unprocessed data. And<00:32:03.279> what<00:32:03.519> you<00:32:03.679> can<00:32:03.840> see<00:32:04.000> is<00:32:04.399> the<00:32:04.640> electrical" + }, + { + "start": 1925.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And what you can see is the electrical" + }, + { + "start": 1925.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And what you can see is the electrical voltages<00:32:05.679> are<00:32:05.840> forming<00:32:06.240> this<00:32:06.720> rotating<00:32:07.279> wave" + }, + { + "start": 1927.509, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "voltages are forming this rotating wave" + }, + { + "start": 1927.519, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "voltages are forming this rotating wave that's<00:32:07.840> rotating<00:32:08.720> counterclockwise" + }, + { + "start": 1930.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's rotating counterclockwise" + }, + { + "start": 1930.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's rotating counterclockwise across<00:32:10.799> the<00:32:11.039> array." + }, + { + "start": 1932.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "across the array." + }, + { + "start": 1932.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "across the array. So<00:32:12.960> much<00:32:13.279> like<00:32:13.679> much<00:32:14.000> like<00:32:14.159> the<00:32:14.640> um<00:32:14.960> a<00:32:15.120> stadium" + }, + { + "start": 1935.509, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So much like much like the um a stadium" + }, + { + "start": 1935.519, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So much like much like the um a stadium crowd<00:32:16.240> can<00:32:16.480> organize<00:32:17.600> using<00:32:17.919> waves,<00:32:18.559> your" + }, + { + "start": 1938.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "crowd can organize using waves, your" + }, + { + "start": 1938.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "crowd can organize using waves, your brain<00:32:19.120> your<00:32:19.440> brain<00:32:19.600> is<00:32:19.840> or<00:32:20.159> organizing<00:32:20.640> itself" + }, + { + "start": 1941.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain your brain is or organizing itself" + }, + { + "start": 1941.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain your brain is or organizing itself using<00:32:21.360> waves.<00:32:21.919> These<00:32:22.240> waves,<00:32:22.559> these" + }, + { + "start": 1942.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "using waves. These waves, these" + }, + { + "start": 1942.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "using waves. These waves, these oscillations<00:32:23.200> aren't<00:32:23.440> like<00:32:23.600> pingpong<00:32:24.159> balls" + }, + { + "start": 1944.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "oscillations aren't like pingpong balls" + }, + { + "start": 1944.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "oscillations aren't like pingpong balls bouncing<00:32:24.880> around<00:32:25.039> your<00:32:25.200> cortex<00:32:25.679> randomly." + }, + { + "start": 1946.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "bouncing around your cortex randomly." + }, + { + "start": 1946.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "bouncing around your cortex randomly. They're<00:32:26.720> highly<00:32:27.120> highly<00:32:27.519> organized.<00:32:28.399> And" + }, + { + "start": 1948.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "They're highly highly organized. And" + }, + { + "start": 1948.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "They're highly highly organized. And whenever<00:32:28.880> you<00:32:29.039> see<00:32:29.200> organization<00:32:29.840> in<00:32:30.080> the" + }, + { + "start": 1950.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "whenever you see organization in the" + }, + { + "start": 1950.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "whenever you see organization in the brain,<00:32:30.960> organization<00:32:32.080> equals<00:32:32.559> function." + }, + { + "start": 1953.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain, organization equals function." + }, + { + "start": 1953.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain, organization equals function. Function<00:32:34.080> invariably<00:32:34.799> follows<00:32:35.120> from" + }, + { + "start": 1955.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Function invariably follows from" + }, + { + "start": 1955.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Function invariably follows from organization<00:32:35.840> because<00:32:36.080> or<00:32:36.480> organ" + }, + { + "start": 1956.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organization because or organ" + }, + { + "start": 1956.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organization because or organ organization<00:32:37.519> means<00:32:37.760> predictability." + }, + { + "start": 1960.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organization means predictability." + }, + { + "start": 1960.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organization means predictability. And<00:32:40.559> waves<00:32:40.880> are<00:32:41.039> also<00:32:41.360> natural<00:32:41.760> way<00:32:42.000> produced" + }, + { + "start": 1962.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And waves are also natural way produced" + }, + { + "start": 1962.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And waves are also natural way produced not<00:32:42.640> just<00:32:42.720> simple<00:32:43.039> organization<00:32:43.600> like<00:32:43.760> this" + }, + { + "start": 1963.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "not just simple organization like this" + }, + { + "start": 1964.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "not just simple organization like this to<00:32:44.240> produce<00:32:44.640> complex<00:32:45.200> organization.<00:32:46.640> And<00:32:46.880> for" + }, + { + "start": 1967.029, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to produce complex organization. And for" + }, + { + "start": 1967.039, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to produce complex organization. And for a<00:32:47.200> metaphor<00:32:47.679> for<00:32:47.919> that,<00:32:48.880> here's<00:32:49.200> a<00:32:49.360> a<00:32:49.679> video<00:32:50.000> of" + }, + { + "start": 1970.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a metaphor for that, here's a a video of" + }, + { + "start": 1970.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a metaphor for that, here's a a video of grains<00:32:50.799> of<00:32:51.039> sand<00:32:51.360> on<00:32:51.519> a<00:32:51.760> speaker.<00:32:52.799> And<00:32:52.960> when" + }, + { + "start": 1973.11, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "grains of sand on a speaker. And when" + }, + { + "start": 1973.12, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "grains of sand on a speaker. And when you<00:32:53.279> play<00:32:53.519> different<00:32:53.760> musical<00:32:54.159> notes,<00:32:54.399> you" + }, + { + "start": 1974.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you play different musical notes, you" + }, + { + "start": 1974.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you play different musical notes, you get<00:32:54.880> you<00:32:55.120> get<00:32:55.440> the<00:32:55.840> the<00:32:56.320> sand<00:32:56.640> forms<00:32:57.039> different" + }, + { + "start": 1977.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "get you get the the sand forms different" + }, + { + "start": 1977.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "get you get the the sand forms different patterns.<00:32:58.640> Now,<00:32:58.880> obviously,<00:32:59.200> I'm<00:32:59.440> not" + }, + { + "start": 1979.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns. Now, obviously, I'm not" + }, + { + "start": 1979.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns. Now, obviously, I'm not talking<00:32:59.840> about<00:33:00.080> shifting<00:33:00.559> around<00:33:01.279> neurons<00:33:01.679> in" + }, + { + "start": 1981.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "talking about shifting around neurons in" + }, + { + "start": 1981.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "talking about shifting around neurons in your<00:33:02.000> cortex.<00:33:02.880> But<00:33:03.039> think<00:33:03.200> of<00:33:03.360> the<00:33:03.519> sound" + }, + { + "start": 1983.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your cortex. But think of the sound" + }, + { + "start": 1983.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your cortex. But think of the sound waves<00:33:04.080> as<00:33:04.320> electrical<00:33:04.799> brain<00:33:05.039> waves," + }, + { + "start": 1985.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves as electrical brain waves," + }, + { + "start": 1985.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves as electrical brain waves, electrical<00:33:05.919> field<00:33:06.159> waves.<00:33:06.559> I<00:33:06.720> mean,<00:33:06.880> like<00:33:07.200> uh" + }, + { + "start": 1987.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical field waves. I mean, like uh" + }, + { + "start": 1987.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical field waves. I mean, like uh they're<00:33:07.679> the<00:33:08.000> same<00:33:08.240> physics,<00:33:08.720> waves<00:33:09.039> are" + }, + { + "start": 1989.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "they're the same physics, waves are" + }, + { + "start": 1989.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "they're the same physics, waves are waves.<00:33:10.080> And<00:33:10.240> the<00:33:10.399> sand<00:33:10.720> instead<00:33:11.039> is<00:33:11.279> spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1991.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves. And the sand instead is spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1991.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves. And the sand instead is spiking patterns<00:33:12.159> of<00:33:12.399> individual<00:33:12.880> neurons." + }, + { + "start": 1994.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns of individual neurons." + }, + { + "start": 1994.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns of individual neurons. Now,<00:33:14.720> what<00:33:14.960> your<00:33:15.120> brain<00:33:15.440> needs<00:33:15.679> to<00:33:15.840> do<00:33:16.000> to" + }, + { + "start": 1996.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now, what your brain needs to do to" + }, + { + "start": 1996.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now, what your brain needs to do to organize,<00:33:16.559> it<00:33:16.720> needs<00:33:16.799> to<00:33:16.960> somehow<00:33:17.279> control" + }, + { + "start": 1997.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organize, it needs to somehow control" + }, + { + "start": 1997.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organize, it needs to somehow control all<00:33:17.760> these<00:33:18.000> neurons.<00:33:18.399> So,<00:33:18.480> they're<00:33:18.720> doing" + }, + { + "start": 1998.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "all these neurons. So, they're doing" + }, + { + "start": 1998.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "all these neurons. So, they're doing something<00:33:19.039> in<00:33:19.279> an<00:33:19.440> organized<00:33:20.000> way.<00:33:21.200> Imagine" + }, + { + "start": 2001.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "something in an organized way. Imagine" + }, + { + "start": 2001.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "something in an organized way. Imagine trying<00:33:21.919> to<00:33:22.159> make<00:33:22.320> these<00:33:22.640> patterns,<00:33:23.039> this" + }, + { + "start": 2003.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "trying to make these patterns, this" + }, + { + "start": 2003.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "trying to make these patterns, this organization<00:33:23.919> here.<00:33:24.320> Imagine<00:33:24.559> trying<00:33:24.720> to" + }, + { + "start": 2004.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organization here. Imagine trying to" + }, + { + "start": 2004.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organization here. Imagine trying to make<00:33:24.960> this<00:33:25.120> organization" + }, + { + "start": 2006.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "make this organization" + }, + { + "start": 2006.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "make this organization by<00:33:27.919> organizing<00:33:28.480> the<00:33:28.720> sand<00:33:29.120> grain<00:33:29.440> by<00:33:29.679> grain." + }, + { + "start": 2010.389, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "by organizing the sand grain by grain." + }, + { + "start": 2010.399, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "by organizing the sand grain by grain. It<00:33:30.559> just<00:33:30.880> be<00:33:31.200> possibly<00:33:31.760> complicated.<00:33:32.960> But" + }, + { + "start": 2013.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "It just be possibly complicated. But" + }, + { + "start": 2013.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "It just be possibly complicated. But organization<00:33:34.320> is<00:33:34.559> a<00:33:34.799> natural<00:33:35.120> outcome<00:33:35.440> of<00:33:35.600> the" + }, + { + "start": 2015.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organization is a natural outcome of the" + }, + { + "start": 2015.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organization is a natural outcome of the influence<00:33:36.159> of<00:33:36.320> wave<00:33:36.640> patterns.<00:33:36.960> You<00:33:37.120> have" + }, + { + "start": 2017.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "influence of wave patterns. You have" + }, + { + "start": 2017.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "influence of wave patterns. You have wave<00:33:37.519> patterns,<00:33:37.840> they<00:33:38.000> form,<00:33:38.320> they<00:33:38.559> create" + }, + { + "start": 2018.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave patterns, they form, they create" + }, + { + "start": 2018.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave patterns, they form, they create interference<00:33:39.360> patterns,<00:33:40.000> and<00:33:40.240> you<00:33:40.399> get<00:33:40.640> you" + }, + { + "start": 2020.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "interference patterns, and you get you" + }, + { + "start": 2020.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "interference patterns, and you get you get<00:33:40.880> this<00:33:41.120> natural<00:33:41.440> organization<00:33:42.000> that<00:33:42.240> falls" + }, + { + "start": 2022.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "get this natural organization that falls" + }, + { + "start": 2022.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "get this natural organization that falls out<00:33:42.640> of<00:33:42.799> it.<00:33:43.200> So<00:33:43.360> this<00:33:43.519> is<00:33:43.760> basic<00:33:44.080> physics<00:33:44.399> that" + }, + { + "start": 2024.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "out of it. So this is basic physics that" + }, + { + "start": 2024.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "out of it. So this is basic physics that evolution<00:33:45.120> could<00:33:45.360> exploit." + }, + { + "start": 2027.509, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "evolution could exploit." + }, + { + "start": 2027.519, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "evolution could exploit. And<00:33:47.760> for<00:33:48.320> further<00:33:48.960> um<00:33:49.120> demonstration<00:33:49.679> of<00:33:49.840> this" + }, + { + "start": 2030.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And for further um demonstration of this" + }, + { + "start": 2030.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And for further um demonstration of this of<00:33:50.480> this<00:33:50.880> for<00:33:51.039> a<00:33:51.200> demonstration<00:33:51.600> of<00:33:51.679> this" + }, + { + "start": 2031.909, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of this for a demonstration of this" + }, + { + "start": 2031.919, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of this for a demonstration of this principle,<00:33:52.640> here's<00:33:52.880> a<00:33:53.039> recent<00:33:53.440> paper<00:33:54.080> um<00:33:54.320> we" + }, + { + "start": 2034.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "principle, here's a recent paper um we" + }, + { + "start": 2034.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "principle, here's a recent paper um we published<00:33:54.880> LA<00:33:55.440> last<00:33:55.760> year<00:33:56.399> where<00:33:56.720> we<00:33:56.880> show<00:33:57.039> a" + }, + { + "start": 2037.269, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "published LA last year where we show a" + }, + { + "start": 2037.279, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "published LA last year where we show a direct<00:33:57.600> connection<00:33:57.919> between<00:33:58.159> these" + }, + { + "start": 2038.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "direct connection between these" + }, + { + "start": 2038.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "direct connection between these traveling<00:33:58.880> waves<00:33:59.200> are<00:33:59.360> rotating<00:33:59.679> around<00:33:59.840> the" + }, + { + "start": 2039.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "traveling waves are rotating around the" + }, + { + "start": 2040.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "traveling waves are rotating around the cortex<00:34:00.720> and<00:34:01.039> changing<00:34:01.519> spiking<00:34:02.000> patterns<00:34:02.320> in" + }, + { + "start": 2042.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex and changing spiking patterns in" + }, + { + "start": 2042.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex and changing spiking patterns in cortex.<00:34:03.519> Now<00:34:03.679> what<00:34:03.919> I'm<00:34:04.080> showing<00:34:04.399> here<00:34:04.960> is<00:34:05.279> not" + }, + { + "start": 2045.83, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex. Now what I'm showing here is not" + }, + { + "start": 2045.84, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex. Now what I'm showing here is not electrical<00:34:06.240> field<00:34:06.480> waves<00:34:06.720> anymore.<00:34:07.120> Not<00:34:07.440> I'm" + }, + { + "start": 2047.59, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical field waves anymore. Not I'm" + }, + { + "start": 2047.6, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical field waves anymore. Not I'm not<00:34:07.760> showing<00:34:07.919> brain<00:34:08.159> waves.<00:34:08.480> I'm<00:34:08.639> showing" + }, + { + "start": 2048.869, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "not showing brain waves. I'm showing" + }, + { + "start": 2048.879, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "not showing brain waves. I'm showing patterns<00:34:09.200> of<00:34:09.359> neural<00:34:09.760> spiking<00:34:10.240> from<00:34:11.040> 200" + }, + { + "start": 2051.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns of neural spiking from 200" + }, + { + "start": 2051.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns of neural spiking from 200 individually<00:34:12.399> recorded<00:34:12.800> neurons<00:34:13.520> of<00:34:13.760> sorry" + }, + { + "start": 2054.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "individually recorded neurons of sorry" + }, + { + "start": 2054.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "individually recorded neurons of sorry 200<00:34:14.480> simultaneously<00:34:15.280> recorded<00:34:15.599> neurons<00:34:15.919> but" + }, + { + "start": 2056.149, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "200 simultaneously recorded neurons but" + }, + { + "start": 2056.159, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "200 simultaneously recorded neurons but 200<00:34:16.480> individual<00:34:16.879> neurons<00:34:17.919> and<00:34:18.159> what<00:34:18.320> it<00:34:18.560> shows" + }, + { + "start": 2058.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "200 individual neurons and what it shows" + }, + { + "start": 2058.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "200 individual neurons and what it shows is<00:34:19.040> something<00:34:19.280> called<00:34:19.679> subspace<00:34:20.320> coding.<00:34:21.599> Now" + }, + { + "start": 2061.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is something called subspace coding. Now" + }, + { + "start": 2061.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is something called subspace coding. Now what<00:34:22.000> subspace<00:34:22.560> coding<00:34:22.879> is<00:34:23.200> it's<00:34:23.359> a<00:34:23.599> measure" + }, + { + "start": 2063.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what subspace coding is it's a measure" + }, + { + "start": 2063.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what subspace coding is it's a measure of<00:34:24.000> the<00:34:24.159> var<00:34:24.560> of<00:34:24.800> shared<00:34:25.119> variance<00:34:25.440> of<00:34:25.599> the" + }, + { + "start": 2065.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of the var of shared variance of the" + }, + { + "start": 2065.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of the var of shared variance of the spiking<00:34:26.159> patterns.<00:34:27.359> Now<00:34:27.919> if<00:34:28.159> I<00:34:28.320> record<00:34:28.560> from" + }, + { + "start": 2068.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking patterns. Now if I record from" + }, + { + "start": 2068.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking patterns. Now if I record from 200<00:34:29.040> neurons<00:34:29.359> we<00:34:29.520> did<00:34:29.679> record<00:34:29.919> from<00:34:30.159> 200" + }, + { + "start": 2070.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "200 neurons we did record from 200" + }, + { + "start": 2070.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "200 neurons we did record from 200 neurons<00:34:30.960> I<00:34:31.200> can<00:34:31.359> create<00:34:31.839> a<00:34:32.240> 200dimensional" + }, + { + "start": 2073.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons I can create a 200dimensional" + }, + { + "start": 2073.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons I can create a 200dimensional space<00:34:34.000> to<00:34:34.320> explain<00:34:34.639> how<00:34:34.800> these<00:34:35.119> neurons<00:34:35.440> are" + }, + { + "start": 2075.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "space to explain how these neurons are" + }, + { + "start": 2075.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "space to explain how these neurons are spiking.<00:34:36.480> That's<00:34:36.720> self-evident.<00:34:37.280> It's" + }, + { + "start": 2077.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking. That's self-evident. It's" + }, + { + "start": 2077.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking. That's self-evident. It's self-descriptive.<00:34:38.240> 200<00:34:38.560> neurons.<00:34:38.960> Each" + }, + { + "start": 2079.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "self-descriptive. 200 neurons. Each" + }, + { + "start": 2079.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "self-descriptive. 200 neurons. Each neuron<00:34:39.440> has<00:34:39.599> his<00:34:39.839> own<00:34:40.000> vector.<00:34:40.800> And<00:34:40.960> the" + }, + { + "start": 2081.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuron has his own vector. And the" + }, + { + "start": 2081.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuron has his own vector. And the spiking<00:34:41.679> is<00:34:41.839> the<00:34:42.079> distance<00:34:42.399> along<00:34:42.639> the" + }, + { + "start": 2082.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking is the distance along the" + }, + { + "start": 2082.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking is the distance along the vector.<00:34:43.200> Bob's<00:34:43.520> your<00:34:43.679> uncle.<00:34:44.720> You<00:34:44.879> can<00:34:45.040> do" + }, + { + "start": 2085.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "vector. Bob's your uncle. You can do" + }, + { + "start": 2085.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "vector. Bob's your uncle. You can do that.<00:34:45.679> But<00:34:45.839> with<00:34:46.000> subspace<00:34:46.560> coding,<00:34:46.879> we<00:34:47.040> ask" + }, + { + "start": 2087.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that. But with subspace coding, we ask" + }, + { + "start": 2087.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that. But with subspace coding, we ask the<00:34:47.440> question,<00:34:48.079> how<00:34:48.320> many<00:34:48.560> dimensions<00:34:49.119> do<00:34:49.359> I" + }, + { + "start": 2089.669, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the question, how many dimensions do I" + }, + { + "start": 2089.679, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the question, how many dimensions do I actually<00:34:50.079> need<00:34:50.320> to<00:34:50.480> explain<00:34:50.800> what<00:34:50.960> these<00:34:51.200> 200" + }, + { + "start": 2091.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "actually need to explain what these 200" + }, + { + "start": 2091.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "actually need to explain what these 200 neurons<00:34:51.919> are<00:34:52.000> doing?<00:34:52.240> And<00:34:52.399> it<00:34:52.560> could<00:34:52.639> be<00:34:52.800> 2,000" + }, + { + "start": 2093.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons are doing? And it could be 2,000" + }, + { + "start": 2093.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons are doing? And it could be 2,000 neurons.<00:34:54.399> How<00:34:54.639> many<00:34:55.040> dimensions<00:34:55.440> do<00:34:55.520> I<00:34:55.679> need" + }, + { + "start": 2095.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons. How many dimensions do I need" + }, + { + "start": 2095.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons. How many dimensions do I need to<00:34:55.919> explain<00:34:56.079> what<00:34:56.240> these<00:34:56.399> 200<00:34:56.720> neurons<00:34:57.040> are" + }, + { + "start": 2097.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to explain what these 200 neurons are" + }, + { + "start": 2097.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to explain what these 200 neurons are doing?<00:34:57.680> And<00:34:57.839> it<00:34:58.000> turns<00:34:58.240> out<00:34:58.640> you<00:34:58.880> can<00:34:59.119> explain" + }, + { + "start": 2099.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "doing? And it turns out you can explain" + }, + { + "start": 2099.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "doing? And it turns out you can explain them<00:35:00.160> what<00:35:00.320> these<00:35:00.560> neurons<00:35:00.800> are<00:35:00.960> doing<00:35:01.040> in" + }, + { + "start": 2101.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "them what these neurons are doing in" + }, + { + "start": 2101.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "them what these neurons are doing in just<00:35:01.440> three<00:35:01.680> dimensions.<00:35:02.560> Just<00:35:02.800> three" + }, + { + "start": 2103.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "just three dimensions. Just three" + }, + { + "start": 2103.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "just three dimensions. Just three dimensions." + }, + { + "start": 2104.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "dimensions." + }, + { + "start": 2104.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "dimensions. And<00:35:04.880> what<00:35:05.119> that<00:35:05.359> means<00:35:06.000> is<00:35:06.240> that<00:35:06.560> spiking<00:35:07.040> in" + }, + { + "start": 2107.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And what that means is that spiking in" + }, + { + "start": 2107.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And what that means is that spiking in cortex<00:35:08.000> is<00:35:08.400> highly<00:35:08.880> coordinated.<00:35:09.920> It's<00:35:10.160> not" + }, + { + "start": 2110.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex is highly coordinated. It's not" + }, + { + "start": 2110.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex is highly coordinated. It's not like<00:35:10.560> insects<00:35:11.359> buzzing<00:35:11.760> chaotically<00:35:12.320> in<00:35:12.480> the" + }, + { + "start": 2112.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like insects buzzing chaotically in the" + }, + { + "start": 2112.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like insects buzzing chaotically in the in<00:35:12.880> the<00:35:12.960> night<00:35:13.280> sky.<00:35:14.240> Cortical<00:35:14.720> spiking<00:35:15.119> is" + }, + { + "start": 2115.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in the night sky. Cortical spiking is" + }, + { + "start": 2115.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in the night sky. Cortical spiking is more<00:35:15.520> like<00:35:15.680> a<00:35:15.839> murmmoration<00:35:16.400> of<00:35:16.560> birds.<00:35:16.960> Birds" + }, + { + "start": 2117.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "more like a murmmoration of birds. Birds" + }, + { + "start": 2117.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "more like a murmmoration of birds. Birds flocking<00:35:17.760> in<00:35:17.920> the<00:35:18.079> sky<00:35:18.320> together<00:35:19.040> in<00:35:19.280> a<00:35:19.440> highly" + }, + { + "start": 2119.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "flocking in the sky together in a highly" + }, + { + "start": 2119.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "flocking in the sky together in a highly organized<00:35:20.480> fashion." + }, + { + "start": 2122.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organized fashion." + }, + { + "start": 2122.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organized fashion. That's<00:35:22.640> what<00:35:22.800> spiking<00:35:23.280> actually<00:35:23.520> is<00:35:23.680> in" + }, + { + "start": 2123.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "That's what spiking actually is in" + }, + { + "start": 2123.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "That's what spiking actually is in cortex.<00:35:25.040> Highly<00:35:25.520> organized.<00:35:26.400> Now<00:35:26.800> you<00:35:27.040> guys" + }, + { + "start": 2127.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex. Highly organized. Now you guys" + }, + { + "start": 2127.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex. Highly organized. Now you guys no<00:35:27.839> doubt<00:35:28.079> get<00:35:28.240> to<00:35:28.400> where<00:35:28.560> I'm<00:35:28.800> going<00:35:28.880> with" + }, + { + "start": 2129.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "no doubt get to where I'm going with" + }, + { + "start": 2129.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "no doubt get to where I'm going with this.<00:35:29.359> How<00:35:29.440> do<00:35:29.599> you<00:35:29.680> produce<00:35:29.920> this<00:35:30.160> kind<00:35:30.240> of" + }, + { + "start": 2130.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this. How do you produce this kind of" + }, + { + "start": 2130.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this. How do you produce this kind of organization?<00:35:31.280> Well,<00:35:31.440> you<00:35:31.680> can<00:35:31.760> throw<00:35:31.920> a<00:35:32.079> wave" + }, + { + "start": 2132.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organization? Well, you can throw a wave" + }, + { + "start": 2132.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organization? Well, you can throw a wave across<00:35:32.640> it,<00:35:32.880> right?<00:35:33.119> That's<00:35:33.359> what<00:35:33.520> I've<00:35:33.680> been" + }, + { + "start": 2133.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "across it, right? That's what I've been" + }, + { + "start": 2133.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "across it, right? That's what I've been arguing.<00:35:34.400> Well,<00:35:34.640> that's<00:35:34.880> exactly<00:35:35.280> what<00:35:35.520> we" + }, + { + "start": 2135.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "arguing. Well, that's exactly what we" + }, + { + "start": 2135.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "arguing. Well, that's exactly what we found.<00:35:36.000> We<00:35:36.400> this<00:35:36.800> we<00:35:37.040> when<00:35:37.280> we<00:35:37.359> record<00:35:37.680> from" + }, + { + "start": 2137.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "found. We this we when we record from" + }, + { + "start": 2137.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "found. We this we when we record from the<00:35:38.079> same<00:35:38.320> electrodes<00:35:39.280> that<00:35:39.520> we<00:35:39.760> record<00:35:40.000> this" + }, + { + "start": 2140.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the same electrodes that we record this" + }, + { + "start": 2140.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the same electrodes that we record this spiking<00:35:40.640> activity<00:35:41.359> showing<00:35:41.760> the<00:35:41.920> this<00:35:42.400> highly" + }, + { + "start": 2142.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking activity showing the this highly" + }, + { + "start": 2142.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking activity showing the this highly organized<00:35:43.440> movement<00:35:43.760> of<00:35:43.920> spiking<00:35:44.400> patterns," + }, + { + "start": 2145.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organized movement of spiking patterns," + }, + { + "start": 2145.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organized movement of spiking patterns, we<00:35:45.359> see<00:35:45.599> traveling<00:35:46.000> waves<00:35:46.800> rotating<00:35:47.440> around" + }, + { + "start": 2147.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we see traveling waves rotating around" + }, + { + "start": 2147.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we see traveling waves rotating around the<00:35:48.160> around<00:35:48.400> the<00:35:48.720> surface<00:35:49.040> of<00:35:49.200> cortex.<00:35:50.400> So" + }, + { + "start": 2150.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the around the surface of cortex. So" + }, + { + "start": 2150.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the around the surface of cortex. So traveling<00:35:51.359> so<00:35:51.920> spiking<00:35:52.400> activity<00:35:53.359> rotate" + }, + { + "start": 2153.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "traveling so spiking activity rotate" + }, + { + "start": 2153.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "traveling so spiking activity rotate I'll<00:35:53.920> explain<00:35:54.160> what<00:35:54.240> the<00:35:54.400> rotation<00:35:54.800> is<00:35:54.960> in<00:35:55.200> a" + }, + { + "start": 2155.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I'll explain what the rotation is in a" + }, + { + "start": 2155.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I'll explain what the rotation is in a moment.<00:35:55.839> These<00:35:56.079> spiking<00:35:56.560> patterns<00:35:56.880> are" + }, + { + "start": 2157.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "moment. These spiking patterns are" + }, + { + "start": 2157.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "moment. These spiking patterns are moving<00:35:57.440> around<00:35:58.400> this<00:35:58.640> computational<00:35:59.280> space" + }, + { + "start": 2159.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "moving around this computational space" + }, + { + "start": 2159.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "moving around this computational space used<00:36:00.000> to<00:36:00.160> represent<00:36:00.560> how<00:36:00.800> spiking<00:36:01.520> is" + }, + { + "start": 2161.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "used to represent how spiking is" + }, + { + "start": 2161.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "used to represent how spiking is changing<00:36:02.160> in<00:36:02.320> cortex<00:36:03.040> and<00:36:03.280> we<00:36:03.440> find<00:36:03.599> a" + }, + { + "start": 2163.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "changing in cortex and we find a" + }, + { + "start": 2163.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "changing in cortex and we find a correspondence<00:36:04.800> of<00:36:05.040> a<00:36:05.280> wave<00:36:05.680> moving<00:36:06.000> across" + }, + { + "start": 2166.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "correspondence of a wave moving across" + }, + { + "start": 2166.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "correspondence of a wave moving across the<00:36:06.480> surface<00:36:06.880> of<00:36:06.960> cortex.<00:36:08.240> Now<00:36:08.640> brief" + }, + { + "start": 2168.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the surface of cortex. Now brief" + }, + { + "start": 2168.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the surface of cortex. Now brief explanation<00:36:10.160> this<00:36:10.320> is<00:36:10.400> a<00:36:10.640> working<00:36:10.880> memory" + }, + { + "start": 2171.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "explanation this is a working memory" + }, + { + "start": 2171.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "explanation this is a working memory task<00:36:11.520> and<00:36:11.680> what<00:36:11.839> we're<00:36:12.000> looking<00:36:12.079> at<00:36:12.240> is<00:36:12.400> the" + }, + { + "start": 2172.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "task and what we're looking at is the" + }, + { + "start": 2172.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "task and what we're looking at is the memory<00:36:12.880> delay<00:36:13.200> the<00:36:13.359> task<00:36:13.599> where<00:36:13.839> the<00:36:14.160> where" + }, + { + "start": 2174.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "memory delay the task where the where" + }, + { + "start": 2174.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "memory delay the task where the where the<00:36:14.720> non-human<00:36:15.359> primate<00:36:16.160> has<00:36:16.400> to<00:36:16.560> hold<00:36:16.800> one<00:36:17.040> of" + }, + { + "start": 2177.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the non-human primate has to hold one of" + }, + { + "start": 2177.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the non-human primate has to hold one of four<00:36:17.520> objects<00:36:17.839> in<00:36:18.079> working<00:36:18.400> memory<00:36:18.800> in<00:36:19.040> mind" + }, + { + "start": 2179.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "four objects in working memory in mind" + }, + { + "start": 2179.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "four objects in working memory in mind over<00:36:19.839> the<00:36:20.079> short<00:36:20.320> memory<00:36:20.640> delay.<00:36:21.440> And<00:36:21.680> what" + }, + { + "start": 2181.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "over the short memory delay. And what" + }, + { + "start": 2181.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "over the short memory delay. And what the<00:36:22.079> four<00:36:22.400> colors<00:36:22.880> represent<00:36:23.599> are<00:36:23.839> the<00:36:24.079> four" + }, + { + "start": 2184.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the four colors represent are the four" + }, + { + "start": 2184.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the four colors represent are the four different<00:36:24.560> objects<00:36:25.359> the<00:36:25.680> animal's<00:36:26.160> holding" + }, + { + "start": 2186.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different objects the animal's holding" + }, + { + "start": 2186.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different objects the animal's holding in<00:36:26.640> mind.<00:36:27.760> And<00:36:27.920> you<00:36:28.079> see<00:36:28.320> separation<00:36:29.040> between" + }, + { + "start": 2189.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in mind. And you see separation between" + }, + { + "start": 2189.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in mind. And you see separation between the<00:36:29.599> lines,<00:36:29.839> which<00:36:30.079> means<00:36:30.240> that<00:36:30.400> the<00:36:30.560> spiking" + }, + { + "start": 2190.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the lines, which means that the spiking" + }, + { + "start": 2190.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the lines, which means that the spiking patterns<00:36:31.280> are<00:36:31.440> conveying<00:36:31.839> information<00:36:32.160> about" + }, + { + "start": 2192.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns are conveying information about" + }, + { + "start": 2192.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns are conveying information about which<00:36:32.720> object<00:36:33.359> the<00:36:33.599> animal's<00:36:34.000> holding<00:36:34.240> in" + }, + { + "start": 2194.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "which object the animal's holding in" + }, + { + "start": 2194.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "which object the animal's holding in working<00:36:34.640> memory.<00:36:35.680> Okay.<00:36:36.480> Now,<00:36:36.720> what's" + }, + { + "start": 2196.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "working memory. Okay. Now, what's" + }, + { + "start": 2196.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "working memory. Okay. Now, what's happening<00:36:37.200> at<00:36:37.520> time<00:36:37.760> zero<00:36:38.480> in<00:36:38.640> the<00:36:38.800> middle<00:36:38.960> of" + }, + { + "start": 2199.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "happening at time zero in the middle of" + }, + { + "start": 2199.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "happening at time zero in the middle of the<00:36:39.280> delay?<00:36:39.920> We're<00:36:40.160> distracting<00:36:40.640> the<00:36:40.880> animal." + }, + { + "start": 2201.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the delay? We're distracting the animal." + }, + { + "start": 2201.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the delay? We're distracting the animal. We're<00:36:41.359> showing<00:36:41.680> we're<00:36:41.839> trying<00:36:42.000> to<00:36:42.079> distract" + }, + { + "start": 2202.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "We're showing we're trying to distract" + }, + { + "start": 2202.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "We're showing we're trying to distract the<00:36:42.560> animal<00:36:42.800> by<00:36:42.960> showing<00:36:43.200> it<00:36:44.000> flashing<00:36:44.320> a" + }, + { + "start": 2204.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the animal by showing it flashing a" + }, + { + "start": 2204.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the animal by showing it flashing a picture<00:36:44.720> on<00:36:44.960> the<00:36:45.119> screen<00:36:45.599> trying<00:36:45.839> to<00:36:46.000> knock<00:36:46.160> it" + }, + { + "start": 2206.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "picture on the screen trying to knock it" + }, + { + "start": 2206.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "picture on the screen trying to knock it off<00:36:46.480> its<00:36:46.720> game.<00:36:47.520> And<00:36:47.680> that<00:36:47.920> works<00:36:48.240> about<00:36:48.800> the" + }, + { + "start": 2209.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "off its game. And that works about the" + }, + { + "start": 2209.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "off its game. And that works about the knocks<00:36:49.599> the<00:36:49.680> animal's<00:36:50.079> performance<00:36:50.400> down." + }, + { + "start": 2210.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "knocks the animal's performance down." + }, + { + "start": 2210.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "knocks the animal's performance down. makes<00:36:50.880> the<00:36:50.960> animal<00:36:51.200> forget<00:36:51.680> about<00:36:52.000> 10<00:36:52.240> to<00:36:52.400> 15%" + }, + { + "start": 2212.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "makes the animal forget about 10 to 15%" + }, + { + "start": 2212.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "makes the animal forget about 10 to 15% of<00:36:53.040> the<00:36:53.280> time.<00:36:54.160> So,<00:36:54.320> what's<00:36:54.560> happening<00:36:54.800> at" + }, + { + "start": 2214.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of the time. So, what's happening at" + }, + { + "start": 2214.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of the time. So, what's happening at time<00:36:55.119> zero?<00:36:55.440> We're<00:36:55.680> distracting<00:36:56.079> the<00:36:56.320> animal." + }, + { + "start": 2217.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "time zero? We're distracting the animal." + }, + { + "start": 2217.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "time zero? We're distracting the animal. And<00:36:57.280> what<00:36:57.440> you<00:36:57.680> see<00:36:58.160> is<00:36:58.400> the<00:36:58.640> neurons<00:36:59.040> are" + }, + { + "start": 2219.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And what you see is the neurons are" + }, + { + "start": 2219.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And what you see is the neurons are being<00:36:59.359> knocked<00:36:59.680> out<00:36:59.760> of<00:36:59.920> where<00:37:00.160> they<00:37:00.320> should" + }, + { + "start": 2220.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "being knocked out of where they should" + }, + { + "start": 2220.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "being knocked out of where they should be<00:37:00.640> by<00:37:00.880> the<00:37:01.119> distraction" + }, + { + "start": 2223.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "be by the distraction" + }, + { + "start": 2223.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "be by the distraction and<00:37:03.280> then<00:37:03.599> something<00:37:03.920> in<00:37:04.160> the<00:37:04.320> brain<00:37:04.560> is" + }, + { + "start": 2224.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and then something in the brain is" + }, + { + "start": 2224.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and then something in the brain is gradually<00:37:05.520> steering<00:37:05.920> the<00:37:06.240> neuron<00:37:06.720> patterns" + }, + { + "start": 2227.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "gradually steering the neuron patterns" + }, + { + "start": 2227.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "gradually steering the neuron patterns back<00:37:07.359> to<00:37:07.599> where<00:37:07.760> they<00:37:07.920> were<00:37:08.079> before.<00:37:08.880> So,<00:37:09.119> this" + }, + { + "start": 2229.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "back to where they were before. So, this" + }, + { + "start": 2229.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "back to where they were before. So, this rotating<00:37:09.920> pattern<00:37:10.320> here<00:37:10.800> is<00:37:11.119> a<00:37:11.359> recovery<00:37:12.480> from" + }, + { + "start": 2233.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "rotating pattern here is a recovery from" + }, + { + "start": 2233.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "rotating pattern here is a recovery from the<00:37:13.839> distraction." + }, + { + "start": 2235.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the distraction." + }, + { + "start": 2235.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the distraction. And<00:37:16.079> we<00:37:16.240> see<00:37:16.400> these<00:37:16.640> rotating.<00:37:17.119> So<00:37:17.280> these" + }, + { + "start": 2237.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And we see these rotating. So these" + }, + { + "start": 2237.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And we see these rotating. So these rotating<00:37:18.000> waves<00:37:18.320> in<00:37:18.560> cortex<00:37:19.440> are<00:37:19.599> we<00:37:19.839> think" + }, + { + "start": 2239.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "rotating waves in cortex are we think" + }, + { + "start": 2240.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "rotating waves in cortex are we think are<00:37:20.160> are<00:37:20.480> producing<00:37:21.200> you<00:37:21.359> see<00:37:21.440> a<00:37:21.599> direct" + }, + { + "start": 2241.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are are producing you see a direct" + }, + { + "start": 2241.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are are producing you see a direct correspondence<00:37:22.800> producing<00:37:23.680> this<00:37:24.000> recovery" + }, + { + "start": 2244.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "correspondence producing this recovery" + }, + { + "start": 2244.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "correspondence producing this recovery from<00:37:24.640> distraction." + }, + { + "start": 2246.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "from distraction." + }, + { + "start": 2246.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "from distraction. Now<00:37:26.480> let<00:37:26.640> me<00:37:26.800> emphasize<00:37:27.200> here<00:37:27.359> that<00:37:27.599> what" + }, + { + "start": 2247.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now let me emphasize here that what" + }, + { + "start": 2247.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now let me emphasize here that what we're<00:37:27.920> seeing<00:37:28.079> here<00:37:28.240> is<00:37:28.400> a<00:37:28.640> is<00:37:28.880> a<00:37:29.040> we're" + }, + { + "start": 2249.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we're seeing here is a is a we're" + }, + { + "start": 2249.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we're seeing here is a is a we're mapping<00:37:29.680> a<00:37:29.920> mathematical<00:37:30.720> construction<00:37:31.599> of" + }, + { + "start": 2251.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mapping a mathematical construction of" + }, + { + "start": 2251.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mapping a mathematical construction of neural<00:37:32.320> computation<00:37:33.280> that<00:37:33.599> in<00:37:33.839> principle" + }, + { + "start": 2254.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neural computation that in principle" + }, + { + "start": 2254.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neural computation that in principle doesn't<00:37:34.720> have<00:37:34.800> to<00:37:34.960> have<00:37:35.119> any<00:37:35.440> relationship" + }, + { + "start": 2255.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "doesn't have to have any relationship" + }, + { + "start": 2256.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "doesn't have to have any relationship whatsoever<00:37:37.040> to<00:37:37.440> anything<00:37:37.839> happening<00:37:38.160> on<00:37:38.400> the" + }, + { + "start": 2258.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "whatsoever to anything happening on the" + }, + { + "start": 2258.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "whatsoever to anything happening on the mapped<00:37:39.040> on<00:37:39.200> the<00:37:39.359> surface<00:37:39.520> of<00:37:39.680> your<00:37:39.839> cortex." + }, + { + "start": 2260.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mapped on the surface of your cortex." + }, + { + "start": 2260.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mapped on the surface of your cortex. But<00:37:40.720> it<00:37:40.880> does.<00:37:41.440> we'd<00:37:41.839> see<00:37:41.920> a<00:37:42.160> correspondence" + }, + { + "start": 2262.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But it does. we'd see a correspondence" + }, + { + "start": 2262.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But it does. we'd see a correspondence between<00:37:42.800> a<00:37:43.040> mathematical<00:37:43.680> construction<00:37:44.079> of" + }, + { + "start": 2264.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "between a mathematical construction of" + }, + { + "start": 2264.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "between a mathematical construction of neural<00:37:44.640> spiking<00:37:45.359> and<00:37:45.760> and<00:37:46.079> a<00:37:46.320> physical" + }, + { + "start": 2266.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neural spiking and and a physical" + }, + { + "start": 2266.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neural spiking and and a physical movement<00:37:46.960> of<00:37:47.119> waves<00:37:47.359> across<00:37:47.599> the<00:37:47.839> surface<00:37:48.079> of" + }, + { + "start": 2268.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "movement of waves across the surface of" + }, + { + "start": 2268.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "movement of waves across the surface of cortex.<00:37:49.119> And<00:37:49.359> what<00:37:49.520> that<00:37:49.760> suggests<00:37:50.160> to<00:37:50.320> me<00:37:50.800> is" + }, + { + "start": 2271.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex. And what that suggests to me is" + }, + { + "start": 2271.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex. And what that suggests to me is somehow<00:37:51.440> these<00:37:51.760> waves<00:37:52.400> are<00:37:52.880> actually" + }, + { + "start": 2273.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "somehow these waves are actually" + }, + { + "start": 2273.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "somehow these waves are actually involved<00:37:54.000> in<00:37:54.720> computation<00:37:55.440> in<00:37:55.680> neural" + }, + { + "start": 2275.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "involved in computation in neural" + }, + { + "start": 2276.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "involved in computation in neural computation." + }, + { + "start": 2278.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation." + }, + { + "start": 2278.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation. And<00:37:58.720> sure<00:37:58.880> enough,<00:37:59.280> waves<00:37:59.760> can<00:38:00.000> perform" + }, + { + "start": 2280.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And sure enough, waves can perform" + }, + { + "start": 2280.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And sure enough, waves can perform computation.<00:38:01.280> You<00:38:01.520> don't<00:38:01.599> need<00:38:01.839> digital" + }, + { + "start": 2282.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation. You don't need digital" + }, + { + "start": 2282.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation. You don't need digital computers<00:38:02.880> digit<00:38:03.680> perform<00:38:04.160> digital" + }, + { + "start": 2284.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computers digit perform digital" + }, + { + "start": 2284.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computers digit perform digital computation<00:38:05.200> to<00:38:05.440> do<00:38:05.599> computation." + }, + { + "start": 2287.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation to do computation." + }, + { + "start": 2287.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation to do computation. In<00:38:07.359> fact,<00:38:08.640> analog<00:38:09.119> computation<00:38:09.520> has<00:38:09.680> been" + }, + { + "start": 2289.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "In fact, analog computation has been" + }, + { + "start": 2289.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "In fact, analog computation has been around<00:38:10.000> for<00:38:10.160> thousands<00:38:10.480> of<00:38:10.640> years.<00:38:10.880> Digital" + }, + { + "start": 2291.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "around for thousands of years. Digital" + }, + { + "start": 2291.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "around for thousands of years. Digital is<00:38:11.359> a<00:38:11.440> bit<00:38:11.520> of<00:38:11.599> a<00:38:12.160> an<00:38:12.400> engineering" + }, + { + "start": 2292.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is a bit of a an engineering" + }, + { + "start": 2292.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is a bit of a an engineering convenience,<00:38:13.280> a<00:38:13.440> bit<00:38:13.520> of<00:38:13.599> a<00:38:13.760> detour.<00:38:14.800> And<00:38:14.960> what" + }, + { + "start": 2295.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "convenience, a bit of a detour. And what" + }, + { + "start": 2295.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "convenience, a bit of a detour. And what you<00:38:15.359> see<00:38:15.520> here<00:38:15.920> is<00:38:16.079> I've<00:38:16.480> illustrated<00:38:16.800> analog" + }, + { + "start": 2297.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you see here is I've illustrated analog" + }, + { + "start": 2297.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you see here is I've illustrated analog computing<00:38:17.920> by<00:38:18.240> showing<00:38:18.960> addition<00:38:19.280> and" + }, + { + "start": 2299.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computing by showing addition and" + }, + { + "start": 2299.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computing by showing addition and subtraction<00:38:20.079> using<00:38:20.480> two<00:38:20.720> sine<00:38:21.040> waves.<00:38:21.760> Here's" + }, + { + "start": 2302.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "subtraction using two sine waves. Here's" + }, + { + "start": 2302.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "subtraction using two sine waves. Here's one<00:38:22.400> wave<00:38:22.640> in<00:38:22.880> blue<00:38:23.280> moving<00:38:23.839> um<00:38:24.160> left<00:38:24.400> to" + }, + { + "start": 2304.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "one wave in blue moving um left to" + }, + { + "start": 2304.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "one wave in blue moving um left to right.<00:38:25.440> Another<00:38:26.160> um<00:38:26.560> um<00:38:27.200> wave<00:38:27.520> in<00:38:27.839> this<00:38:28.160> amber" + }, + { + "start": 2308.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "right. Another um um wave in this amber" + }, + { + "start": 2308.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "right. Another um um wave in this amber orange<00:38:29.200> like<00:38:29.359> color<00:38:29.599> moving<00:38:30.079> uh<00:38:30.240> right<00:38:30.480> to" + }, + { + "start": 2310.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "orange like color moving uh right to" + }, + { + "start": 2310.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "orange like color moving uh right to left.<00:38:31.520> And<00:38:31.680> the<00:38:31.839> dotted<00:38:32.240> line<00:38:32.480> shows<00:38:32.720> what" + }, + { + "start": 2312.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "left. And the dotted line shows what" + }, + { + "start": 2312.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "left. And the dotted line shows what happens<00:38:33.119> when<00:38:33.280> you<00:38:33.440> sum<00:38:33.599> the<00:38:33.760> two<00:38:33.920> waves" + }, + { + "start": 2314.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "happens when you sum the two waves" + }, + { + "start": 2314.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "happens when you sum the two waves together.<00:38:35.040> And<00:38:35.200> if<00:38:35.359> you<00:38:35.520> sum<00:38:35.760> it<00:38:35.920> just<00:38:36.079> this" + }, + { + "start": 2316.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "together. And if you sum it just this" + }, + { + "start": 2316.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "together. And if you sum it just this one,<00:38:36.640> there's<00:38:36.800> a<00:38:36.960> space<00:38:37.200> here<00:38:37.359> on<00:38:37.520> the<00:38:37.760> on<00:38:38.160> the" + }, + { + "start": 2318.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "one, there's a space here on the on the" + }, + { + "start": 2318.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "one, there's a space here on the on the uh<00:38:38.640> x<00:38:38.960> axis<00:38:39.680> and<00:38:39.839> amplitude<00:38:40.320> in<00:38:40.400> the<00:38:40.560> y" + }, + { + "start": 2320.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh x axis and amplitude in the y" + }, + { + "start": 2320.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh x axis and amplitude in the y amplitude<00:38:41.200> on<00:38:41.359> the<00:38:41.440> y-<00:38:41.599> axis.<00:38:42.079> If<00:38:42.240> we<00:38:42.400> sum" + }, + { + "start": 2322.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "amplitude on the y- axis. If we sum" + }, + { + "start": 2322.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "amplitude on the y- axis. If we sum right<00:38:42.880> here,<00:38:43.119> we<00:38:43.359> could<00:38:43.520> see<00:38:43.680> we're<00:38:43.920> doing" + }, + { + "start": 2324.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "right here, we could see we're doing" + }, + { + "start": 2324.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "right here, we could see we're doing addition<00:38:44.640> subtraction<00:38:45.119> just<00:38:45.280> by<00:38:45.440> the<00:38:45.599> waves" + }, + { + "start": 2325.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "addition subtraction just by the waves" + }, + { + "start": 2325.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "addition subtraction just by the waves coming<00:38:46.160> together.<00:38:47.520> Okay,<00:38:48.800> so<00:38:49.040> how<00:38:49.280> the<00:38:49.440> waves" + }, + { + "start": 2329.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "coming together. Okay, so how the waves" + }, + { + "start": 2329.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "coming together. Okay, so how the waves interact<00:38:50.240> models<00:38:50.640> the<00:38:50.800> equation.<00:38:51.200> I've" + }, + { + "start": 2331.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "interact models the equation. I've" + }, + { + "start": 2331.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "interact models the equation. I've modeled<00:38:52.320> addition<00:38:52.640> and<00:38:52.800> subtraction<00:38:53.280> by<00:38:53.520> just" + }, + { + "start": 2333.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "modeled addition and subtraction by just" + }, + { + "start": 2333.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "modeled addition and subtraction by just having<00:38:53.920> two<00:38:54.079> simple<00:38:54.320> slide<00:38:54.640> waves<00:38:54.960> come" + }, + { + "start": 2335.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "having two simple slide waves come" + }, + { + "start": 2335.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "having two simple slide waves come straight<00:38:55.599> at<00:38:55.839> one<00:38:56.079> another." + }, + { + "start": 2337.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "straight at one another." + }, + { + "start": 2337.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "straight at one another. And" + }, + { + "start": 2340.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And" + }, + { + "start": 2340.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And all<00:39:00.400> the<00:39:00.560> values<00:39:00.960> are<00:39:01.119> car<00:39:01.440> all<00:39:01.520> the<00:39:01.680> values<00:39:02.000> I" + }, + { + "start": 2342.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "all the values are car all the values I" + }, + { + "start": 2342.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "all the values are car all the values I might<00:39:02.400> want<00:39:02.560> to<00:39:02.640> add<00:39:02.800> and<00:39:02.960> subtract<00:39:03.280> are" + }, + { + "start": 2343.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "might want to add and subtract are" + }, + { + "start": 2343.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "might want to add and subtract are carried<00:39:03.760> in<00:39:04.079> carried<00:39:04.400> in<00:39:04.640> different<00:39:04.880> parts<00:39:05.119> of" + }, + { + "start": 2345.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "carried in carried in different parts of" + }, + { + "start": 2345.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "carried in carried in different parts of these<00:39:05.520> two<00:39:06.000> of<00:39:06.240> this<00:39:06.480> blue<00:39:06.640> and<00:39:06.880> amber" + }, + { + "start": 2347.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these two of this blue and amber" + }, + { + "start": 2347.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these two of this blue and amber traveling<00:39:07.680> wave.<00:39:08.960> Right?<00:39:09.599> So<00:39:09.760> when<00:39:10.000> the<00:39:10.160> waves" + }, + { + "start": 2350.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "traveling wave. Right? So when the waves" + }, + { + "start": 2350.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "traveling wave. Right? So when the waves interact<00:39:11.359> the<00:39:11.680> entire<00:39:12.000> equation<00:39:12.480> all<00:39:12.640> the" + }, + { + "start": 2352.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "interact the entire equation all the" + }, + { + "start": 2352.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "interact the entire equation all the addition<00:39:13.200> subtraction<00:39:13.760> across<00:39:14.160> all<00:39:14.320> these" + }, + { + "start": 2354.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "addition subtraction across all these" + }, + { + "start": 2354.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "addition subtraction across all these different<00:39:14.800> values<00:39:15.359> all<00:39:15.520> the<00:39:15.680> addition" + }, + { + "start": 2356.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different values all the addition" + }, + { + "start": 2356.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different values all the addition subtraction<00:39:16.560> across<00:39:16.880> all<00:39:17.040> the<00:39:17.280> space<00:39:17.920> all" + }, + { + "start": 2358.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "subtraction across all the space all" + }, + { + "start": 2358.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "subtraction across all the space all happens<00:39:18.560> simultaneously<00:39:19.760> you<00:39:19.920> get<00:39:20.160> pure" + }, + { + "start": 2361.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "happens simultaneously you get pure" + }, + { + "start": 2361.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "happens simultaneously you get pure parallel<00:39:21.599> computation<00:39:22.240> inherently<00:39:22.800> parallel" + }, + { + "start": 2363.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "parallel computation inherently parallel" + }, + { + "start": 2363.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "parallel computation inherently parallel computation<00:39:24.240> whereas<00:39:24.640> digital<00:39:25.200> is" + }, + { + "start": 2365.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation whereas digital is" + }, + { + "start": 2365.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation whereas digital is inherently<00:39:26.000> sequential." + }, + { + "start": 2367.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "inherently sequential." + }, + { + "start": 2367.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "inherently sequential. And<00:39:27.920> this<00:39:28.160> is<00:39:28.320> just<00:39:28.560> one<00:39:28.800> dimension<00:39:29.280> and<00:39:29.599> one" + }, + { + "start": 2369.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And this is just one dimension and one" + }, + { + "start": 2369.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And this is just one dimension and one frequency." + }, + { + "start": 2371.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequency." + }, + { + "start": 2371.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "frequency. Okay,<00:39:32.079> your<00:39:32.320> brain<00:39:32.640> could<00:39:32.800> do<00:39:32.960> this<00:39:33.119> across" + }, + { + "start": 2373.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Okay, your brain could do this across" + }, + { + "start": 2373.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Okay, your brain could do this across multiple<00:39:34.079> frequencies<00:39:34.880> anywhere<00:39:35.200> from<00:39:35.440> one" + }, + { + "start": 2375.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "multiple frequencies anywhere from one" + }, + { + "start": 2375.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "multiple frequencies anywhere from one hertz<00:39:36.000> to<00:39:36.640> 100<00:39:36.960> hertz<00:39:37.599> and<00:39:37.920> can<00:39:38.079> do<00:39:38.160> it<00:39:38.240> in" + }, + { + "start": 2378.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "hertz to 100 hertz and can do it in" + }, + { + "start": 2378.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "hertz to 100 hertz and can do it in three<00:39:38.720> dimensions.<00:39:39.520> That's<00:39:39.760> a<00:39:40.000> lot<00:39:40.160> of<00:39:40.560> space" + }, + { + "start": 2380.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "three dimensions. That's a lot of space" + }, + { + "start": 2380.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "three dimensions. That's a lot of space to<00:39:41.119> do<00:39:41.200> a<00:39:41.440> lot<00:39:41.520> of<00:39:41.680> complex<00:39:42.079> computation." + }, + { + "start": 2383.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to do a lot of complex computation." + }, + { + "start": 2383.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to do a lot of complex computation. And<00:39:43.839> this<00:39:44.079> isn't<00:39:44.320> a<00:39:44.400> conjecture.<00:39:45.040> You<00:39:45.200> could" + }, + { + "start": 2385.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And this isn't a conjecture. You could" + }, + { + "start": 2385.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And this isn't a conjecture. You could do<00:39:45.839> complex<00:39:46.240> math<00:39:46.480> with<00:39:46.720> analog<00:39:47.119> computation." + }, + { + "start": 2388.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "do complex math with analog computation." + }, + { + "start": 2388.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "do complex math with analog computation. There's<00:39:48.720> many<00:39:49.040> modern<00:39:49.599> examples<00:39:50.000> of<00:39:50.160> this," + }, + { + "start": 2390.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "There's many modern examples of this," + }, + { + "start": 2390.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "There's many modern examples of this, but<00:39:50.960> one<00:39:51.200> example<00:39:51.599> from<00:39:52.320> hundred<00:39:52.640> years<00:39:52.880> ago" + }, + { + "start": 2393.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "but one example from hundred years ago" + }, + { + "start": 2393.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "but one example from hundred years ago was<00:39:53.839> MIT's<00:39:54.480> own<00:39:54.720> Vanir<00:39:55.280> Bush,<00:39:55.839> right<00:39:56.000> across" + }, + { + "start": 2396.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "was MIT's own Vanir Bush, right across" + }, + { + "start": 2396.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "was MIT's own Vanir Bush, right across the<00:39:56.320> street<00:39:56.480> from<00:39:56.720> where<00:39:56.880> I'm<00:39:57.040> sitting<00:39:57.359> right" + }, + { + "start": 2397.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the street from where I'm sitting right" + }, + { + "start": 2397.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the street from where I'm sitting right now,<00:39:58.160> built<00:39:58.400> an<00:39:58.640> analog<00:39:59.200> differential" + }, + { + "start": 2399.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "now, built an analog differential" + }, + { + "start": 2399.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "now, built an analog differential analyzer<00:40:00.720> that<00:40:01.040> solved<00:40:01.599> 18<00:40:02.000> variable" + }, + { + "start": 2402.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "analyzer that solved 18 variable" + }, + { + "start": 2402.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "analyzer that solved 18 variable differential<00:40:03.119> equations<00:40:04.000> using<00:40:04.400> wheels<00:40:04.800> and" + }, + { + "start": 2404.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "differential equations using wheels and" + }, + { + "start": 2404.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "differential equations using wheels and discs.<00:40:05.760> Wheels<00:40:06.079> and<00:40:06.160> discs<00:40:06.480> and<00:40:06.640> waves<00:40:06.960> are" + }, + { + "start": 2407.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "discs. Wheels and discs and waves are" + }, + { + "start": 2407.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "discs. Wheels and discs and waves are the<00:40:07.280> same<00:40:07.520> thing.<00:40:08.720> And<00:40:08.880> what<00:40:09.119> he<00:40:09.280> did<00:40:09.440> is<00:40:09.520> he" + }, + { + "start": 2409.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the same thing. And what he did is he" + }, + { + "start": 2409.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the same thing. And what he did is he set<00:40:09.920> up<00:40:10.000> the<00:40:10.240> wheels<00:40:10.480> and<00:40:10.640> disc<00:40:10.880> to<00:40:11.119> model" + }, + { + "start": 2411.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "set up the wheels and disc to model" + }, + { + "start": 2411.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "set up the wheels and disc to model which<00:40:11.599> differential<00:40:12.160> equation<00:40:12.560> he<00:40:12.800> wants<00:40:12.960> to" + }, + { + "start": 2413.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "which differential equation he wants to" + }, + { + "start": 2413.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "which differential equation he wants to calculate.<00:40:14.079> And<00:40:14.240> then<00:40:14.320> when<00:40:14.480> he<00:40:14.640> turns<00:40:14.880> the" + }, + { + "start": 2415.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "calculate. And then when he turns the" + }, + { + "start": 2415.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "calculate. And then when he turns the crank<00:40:15.520> the<00:40:15.760> whole<00:40:15.920> equation<00:40:16.240> gets<00:40:16.480> to<00:40:16.560> sol" + }, + { + "start": 2417.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "crank the whole equation gets to sol" + }, + { + "start": 2417.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "crank the whole equation gets to sol solved<00:40:17.440> in<00:40:17.680> parallel.<00:40:18.800> So<00:40:18.960> the<00:40:19.440> setup<00:40:19.839> time" + }, + { + "start": 2420.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "solved in parallel. So the setup time" + }, + { + "start": 2420.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "solved in parallel. So the setup time the<00:40:20.560> main<00:40:20.960> time<00:40:21.200> here<00:40:21.440> was<00:40:21.680> setting<00:40:21.839> up<00:40:21.920> the" + }, + { + "start": 2422.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the main time here was setting up the" + }, + { + "start": 2422.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the main time here was setting up the wheels<00:40:22.320> and<00:40:22.400> disc<00:40:22.640> to<00:40:22.800> model<00:40:23.040> the<00:40:23.200> equation." + }, + { + "start": 2423.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wheels and disc to model the equation." + }, + { + "start": 2423.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wheels and disc to model the equation. But<00:40:24.000> the<00:40:24.240> computation<00:40:24.960> takes<00:40:25.280> place" + }, + { + "start": 2425.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But the computation takes place" + }, + { + "start": 2425.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But the computation takes place instantaneously.<00:40:26.960> In<00:40:27.119> the<00:40:27.280> brain<00:40:27.520> we<00:40:27.680> don't" + }, + { + "start": 2427.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "instantaneously. In the brain we don't" + }, + { + "start": 2427.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "instantaneously. In the brain we don't have<00:40:27.839> to<00:40:27.920> set<00:40:28.079> up<00:40:28.160> wheels<00:40:28.400> and<00:40:28.480> disc.<00:40:28.720> We<00:40:28.880> can" + }, + { + "start": 2428.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have to set up wheels and disc. We can" + }, + { + "start": 2428.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have to set up wheels and disc. We can just<00:40:29.119> have<00:40:29.440> waves<00:40:29.839> are<00:40:30.000> flexible.<00:40:30.480> We<00:40:30.560> we<00:40:30.880> can" + }, + { + "start": 2431.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "just have waves are flexible. We we can" + }, + { + "start": 2431.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "just have waves are flexible. We we can model<00:40:31.359> equations<00:40:31.839> on<00:40:32.000> on<00:40:32.240> the<00:40:32.400> on<00:40:32.640> the<00:40:32.880> fly<00:40:33.280> and" + }, + { + "start": 2433.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "model equations on on the on the fly and" + }, + { + "start": 2433.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "model equations on on the on the fly and do<00:40:33.760> parallel<00:40:34.240> computing<00:40:34.800> when<00:40:35.119> waves<00:40:35.520> come" + }, + { + "start": 2435.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "do parallel computing when waves come" + }, + { + "start": 2435.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "do parallel computing when waves come together.<00:40:36.720> And<00:40:36.880> analog<00:40:37.359> computing<00:40:38.320> as<00:40:38.560> I've" + }, + { + "start": 2438.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "together. And analog computing as I've" + }, + { + "start": 2438.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "together. And analog computing as I've hinted<00:40:39.200> at<00:40:39.440> is<00:40:39.599> a<00:40:39.760> huge<00:40:40.079> advantage<00:40:40.400> over" + }, + { + "start": 2440.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "hinted at is a huge advantage over" + }, + { + "start": 2440.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "hinted at is a huge advantage over digital.<00:40:42.079> Analog<00:40:42.480> computing<00:40:42.880> is<00:40:43.040> is<00:40:43.359> a<00:40:43.599> way" + }, + { + "start": 2444.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "digital. Analog computing is is a way" + }, + { + "start": 2444.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "digital. Analog computing is is a way vastly<00:40:44.880> more<00:40:45.200> efficient.<00:40:45.920> It's" + }, + { + "start": 2446.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "vastly more efficient. It's" + }, + { + "start": 2446.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "vastly more efficient. It's informationrich.<00:40:47.440> You<00:40:47.599> know<00:40:47.680> the<00:40:47.920> real<00:40:48.160> world" + }, + { + "start": 2448.31, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "informationrich. You know the real world" + }, + { + "start": 2448.32, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "informationrich. You know the real world is<00:40:48.560> made<00:40:48.640> up<00:40:48.800> of<00:40:48.960> continuous<00:40:49.440> signals.<00:40:50.160> But<00:40:50.320> if" + }, + { + "start": 2450.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is made up of continuous signals. But if" + }, + { + "start": 2450.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is made up of continuous signals. But if you<00:40:50.560> want<00:40:50.640> to<00:40:50.720> do<00:40:50.880> digital<00:40:51.200> computation<00:40:51.680> then" + }, + { + "start": 2451.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you want to do digital computation then" + }, + { + "start": 2451.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you want to do digital computation then you<00:40:52.000> got<00:40:52.160> you<00:40:52.320> got<00:40:52.480> to<00:40:52.720> arbitrarily<00:40:53.359> divide<00:40:53.599> up" + }, + { + "start": 2453.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you got you got to arbitrarily divide up" + }, + { + "start": 2453.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you got you got to arbitrarily divide up the<00:40:53.920> world<00:40:54.079> into<00:40:54.320> ones<00:40:54.480> and<00:40:54.640> zeros<00:40:55.040> which<00:40:55.280> is" + }, + { + "start": 2455.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the world into ones and zeros which is" + }, + { + "start": 2455.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the world into ones and zeros which is already<00:40:56.079> highly<00:40:56.480> inefficient.<00:40:57.680> But<00:40:57.839> again" + }, + { + "start": 2458.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "already highly inefficient. But again" + }, + { + "start": 2458.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "already highly inefficient. But again the<00:40:58.240> real<00:40:58.480> advantage<00:40:58.800> is<00:40:59.119> that<00:40:59.680> that<00:40:59.920> analog" + }, + { + "start": 2460.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the real advantage is that that analog" + }, + { + "start": 2460.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the real advantage is that that analog computation<00:41:01.359> is<00:41:01.680> purely<00:41:02.079> parallel.<00:41:02.480> When<00:41:02.640> the" + }, + { + "start": 2462.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation is purely parallel. When the" + }, + { + "start": 2462.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation is purely parallel. When the waves<00:41:03.040> interact,<00:41:03.520> all<00:41:03.680> the<00:41:03.839> variables" + }, + { + "start": 2464.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves interact, all the variables" + }, + { + "start": 2464.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves interact, all the variables compute<00:41:04.720> simultaneously.<00:41:05.839> Digital" + }, + { + "start": 2466.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "compute simultaneously. Digital" + }, + { + "start": 2466.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "compute simultaneously. Digital computation<00:41:06.800> is<00:41:07.119> sequential.<00:41:08.000> That<00:41:08.400> both" + }, + { + "start": 2468.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation is sequential. That both" + }, + { + "start": 2468.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation is sequential. That both these<00:41:08.880> things<00:41:09.040> are<00:41:09.280> a<00:41:09.520> huge<00:41:09.760> advantage<00:41:10.160> over" + }, + { + "start": 2470.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these things are a huge advantage over" + }, + { + "start": 2470.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these things are a huge advantage over over<00:41:10.720> digital<00:41:11.119> computation." + }, + { + "start": 2472.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "over digital computation." + }, + { + "start": 2472.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "over digital computation. Think<00:41:13.040> about<00:41:13.280> AI.<00:41:13.680> AI<00:41:14.319> based<00:41:14.560> on<00:41:14.720> digital" + }, + { + "start": 2475.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Think about AI. AI based on digital" + }, + { + "start": 2475.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Think about AI. AI based on digital computation<00:41:15.680> and<00:41:15.839> this<00:41:16.000> connection<00:41:16.400> as<00:41:16.560> a" + }, + { + "start": 2476.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation and this connection as a" + }, + { + "start": 2476.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation and this connection as a model<00:41:17.359> consumes<00:41:18.079> enormous<00:41:18.640> amounts<00:41:18.960> of" + }, + { + "start": 2479.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "model consumes enormous amounts of" + }, + { + "start": 2479.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "model consumes enormous amounts of energy.<00:41:19.440> They're<00:41:19.680> building<00:41:19.920> nuclear<00:41:20.400> power" + }, + { + "start": 2480.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "energy. They're building nuclear power" + }, + { + "start": 2480.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "energy. They're building nuclear power plants<00:41:21.040> to<00:41:21.520> to<00:41:22.160> um<00:41:22.560> to<00:41:22.880> power<00:41:23.280> AI." + }, + { + "start": 2486.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "plants to to um to power AI." + }, + { + "start": 2486.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "plants to to um to power AI. They're<00:41:26.319> building<00:41:26.880> nuclear<00:41:27.280> power<00:41:27.520> plants<00:41:27.839> to" + }, + { + "start": 2487.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "They're building nuclear power plants to" + }, + { + "start": 2488.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "They're building nuclear power plants to power<00:41:28.319> AI.<00:41:29.040> And<00:41:29.200> here's<00:41:29.440> a<00:41:29.599> graph<00:41:29.839> showing<00:41:30.560> the" + }, + { + "start": 2491.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "power AI. And here's a graph showing the" + }, + { + "start": 2491.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "power AI. And here's a graph showing the total<00:41:31.440> output<00:41:31.839> of<00:41:32.000> the<00:41:32.160> of<00:41:32.480> produced<00:41:32.800> by<00:41:32.960> the" + }, + { + "start": 2493.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "total output of the of produced by the" + }, + { + "start": 2493.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "total output of the of produced by the state<00:41:33.280> of<00:41:33.440> Virginia<00:41:33.839> alone<00:41:34.400> is<00:41:34.640> about<00:41:34.960> a" + }, + { + "start": 2495.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "state of Virginia alone is about a" + }, + { + "start": 2495.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "state of Virginia alone is about a quarter<00:41:35.359> of<00:41:35.520> its<00:41:35.839> goes<00:41:36.000> to<00:41:36.160> these<00:41:36.560> AI<00:41:37.280> um" + }, + { + "start": 2497.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "quarter of its goes to these AI um" + }, + { + "start": 2497.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "quarter of its goes to these AI um powered<00:41:37.920> data<00:41:38.319> centers<00:41:39.040> which<00:41:39.280> are<00:41:39.440> causing" + }, + { + "start": 2499.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "powered data centers which are causing" + }, + { + "start": 2499.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "powered data centers which are causing brownouts<00:41:40.400> and<00:41:40.480> neighborhoods<00:41:40.800> around<00:41:41.040> them" + }, + { + "start": 2501.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brownouts and neighborhoods around them" + }, + { + "start": 2501.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brownouts and neighborhoods around them and<00:41:41.440> stuff.<00:41:41.839> By<00:41:42.319> 2030<00:41:42.880> is<00:41:43.040> projected<00:41:43.359> as<00:41:43.520> much" + }, + { + "start": 2503.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and stuff. By 2030 is projected as much" + }, + { + "start": 2503.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and stuff. By 2030 is projected as much as<00:41:43.839> half<00:41:44.079> of<00:41:44.160> the<00:41:44.400> power<00:41:44.640> that<00:41:45.359> one<00:41:45.680> that" + }, + { + "start": 2505.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "as half of the power that one that" + }, + { + "start": 2505.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "as half of the power that one that Virginia<00:41:46.240> produces<00:41:46.720> will<00:41:47.040> be<00:41:47.599> devoted<00:41:48.000> to<00:41:48.480> AI" + }, + { + "start": 2509.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Virginia produces will be devoted to AI" + }, + { + "start": 2509.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Virginia produces will be devoted to AI data<00:41:49.520> centers.<00:41:50.319> Okay.<00:41:50.800> the<00:41:51.359> projection<00:41:51.920> AI" + }, + { + "start": 2512.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "data centers. Okay. the projection AI" + }, + { + "start": 2512.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "data centers. Okay. the projection AI projection<00:41:53.440> power<00:41:53.760> demands<00:41:54.319> outstrip<00:41:54.800> the" + }, + { + "start": 2515.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "projection power demands outstrip the" + }, + { + "start": 2515.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "projection power demands outstrip the energy<00:41:56.000> the<00:41:56.560> ability<00:41:56.880> of<00:41:57.040> the<00:41:57.359> energy<00:41:57.680> supply" + }, + { + "start": 2517.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "energy the ability of the energy supply" + }, + { + "start": 2518.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "energy the ability of the energy supply to<00:41:58.240> provide<00:41:58.480> it<00:41:58.640> in<00:41:58.800> the<00:41:58.960> future." + }, + { + "start": 2520.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to provide it in the future." + }, + { + "start": 2520.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to provide it in the future. This<00:42:00.800> is<00:42:00.960> not<00:42:01.359> the<00:42:01.599> way<00:42:02.079> biology<00:42:02.800> works." + }, + { + "start": 2523.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "This is not the way biology works." + }, + { + "start": 2523.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "This is not the way biology works. Biology<00:42:04.319> does<00:42:04.640> not<00:42:04.880> solve<00:42:05.280> problems<00:42:05.680> by" + }, + { + "start": 2525.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Biology does not solve problems by" + }, + { + "start": 2525.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Biology does not solve problems by throwing<00:42:06.160> huge<00:42:06.480> amounts<00:42:06.720> of<00:42:06.880> energy<00:42:07.280> at<00:42:07.440> it.<00:42:08.319> A" + }, + { + "start": 2528.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "throwing huge amounts of energy at it. A" + }, + { + "start": 2528.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "throwing huge amounts of energy at it. A pretty<00:42:08.800> good<00:42:08.960> definition<00:42:09.359> of<00:42:09.599> life<00:42:10.160> is<00:42:10.800> local" + }, + { + "start": 2531.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "pretty good definition of life is local" + }, + { + "start": 2531.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "pretty good definition of life is local reverses<00:42:11.680> in<00:42:11.839> entropy<00:42:12.640> using<00:42:12.960> as<00:42:13.200> little" + }, + { + "start": 2533.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "reverses in entropy using as little" + }, + { + "start": 2533.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "reverses in entropy using as little energy<00:42:13.839> as<00:42:14.079> possible." + }, + { + "start": 2535.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "energy as possible." + }, + { + "start": 2535.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "energy as possible. Evolution<00:42:16.240> favors<00:42:16.720> energy<00:42:17.200> efficiency<00:42:18.079> and" + }, + { + "start": 2538.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Evolution favors energy efficiency and" + }, + { + "start": 2538.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Evolution favors energy efficiency and your<00:42:18.560> far<00:42:18.800> more<00:42:19.040> capable<00:42:19.520> brain<00:42:20.160> runs<00:42:20.480> on<00:42:20.640> just" + }, + { + "start": 2540.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your far more capable brain runs on just" + }, + { + "start": 2540.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your far more capable brain runs on just 20<00:42:21.119> watts<00:42:21.520> of<00:42:21.599> power.<00:42:21.920> The<00:42:22.160> power<00:42:22.319> of<00:42:22.400> a<00:42:22.560> dim" + }, + { + "start": 2542.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "20 watts of power. The power of a dim" + }, + { + "start": 2542.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "20 watts of power. The power of a dim light<00:42:23.040> bulb<00:42:23.520> and<00:42:23.760> your<00:42:24.000> brain<00:42:24.240> is<00:42:24.480> more" + }, + { + "start": 2544.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "light bulb and your brain is more" + }, + { + "start": 2544.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "light bulb and your brain is more powerful<00:42:25.040> than<00:42:25.280> any<00:42:25.760> AI<00:42:26.160> system<00:42:26.960> out<00:42:27.200> there." + }, + { + "start": 2548.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "powerful than any AI system out there." + }, + { + "start": 2548.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "powerful than any AI system out there. So<00:42:28.480> clearly<00:42:28.800> our<00:42:29.040> brains<00:42:29.280> are<00:42:29.440> doing" + }, + { + "start": 2549.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So clearly our brains are doing" + }, + { + "start": 2549.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So clearly our brains are doing something<00:42:30.000> different.<00:42:30.960> And<00:42:31.040> I<00:42:31.280> think<00:42:31.359> it's" + }, + { + "start": 2551.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "something different. And I think it's" + }, + { + "start": 2551.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "something different. And I think it's not<00:42:31.760> connectism<00:42:32.400> and<00:42:32.560> it's<00:42:32.720> not<00:42:33.040> not<00:42:33.280> digital" + }, + { + "start": 2553.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "not connectism and it's not not digital" + }, + { + "start": 2553.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "not connectism and it's not not digital logic<00:42:34.400> like<00:42:34.880> comput<00:42:35.359> computations.<00:42:36.160> It's" + }, + { + "start": 2556.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "logic like comput computations. It's" + }, + { + "start": 2556.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "logic like comput computations. It's wave-based<00:42:37.119> organization<00:42:37.920> and<00:42:38.160> wave-based" + }, + { + "start": 2558.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave-based organization and wave-based" + }, + { + "start": 2558.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave-based organization and wave-based analog<00:42:39.440> computation.<00:42:40.079> So<00:42:40.560> in<00:42:40.800> summary," + }, + { + "start": 2562.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "analog computation. So in summary," + }, + { + "start": 2562.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "analog computation. So in summary, brains<00:42:43.359> we<00:42:44.000> I<00:42:44.240> think<00:42:44.400> AI<00:42:44.800> like<00:42:45.040> connectionism" + }, + { + "start": 2566.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brains we I think AI like connectionism" + }, + { + "start": 2566.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brains we I think AI like connectionism connectionism<00:42:47.280> is<00:42:47.520> not<00:42:47.680> wrong<00:42:48.400> and<00:42:48.720> AI<00:42:49.040> is<00:42:49.200> not" + }, + { + "start": 2569.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connectionism is not wrong and AI is not" + }, + { + "start": 2569.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connectionism is not wrong and AI is not wrong<00:42:49.520> to<00:42:49.680> use<00:42:49.839> connectionism.<00:42:50.560> It's<00:42:50.720> a<00:42:50.880> great" + }, + { + "start": 2571.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wrong to use connectionism. It's a great" + }, + { + "start": 2571.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wrong to use connectionism. It's a great way<00:42:51.119> to<00:42:51.359> store<00:42:51.680> information.<00:42:52.720> Okay,<00:42:53.280> great" + }, + { + "start": 2573.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "way to store information. Okay, great" + }, + { + "start": 2573.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "way to store information. Okay, great way<00:42:53.599> to<00:42:53.760> store<00:42:54.000> information<00:42:54.319> in<00:42:54.480> the<00:42:54.640> long" + }, + { + "start": 2574.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "way to store information in the long" + }, + { + "start": 2574.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "way to store information in the long term.<00:42:55.359> But<00:42:55.599> expressing<00:42:56.160> information<00:42:56.640> and" + }, + { + "start": 2576.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "term. But expressing information and" + }, + { + "start": 2576.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "term. But expressing information and computing<00:42:57.200> it<00:42:57.520> may<00:42:57.839> be<00:42:57.920> a<00:42:58.160> whole<00:42:58.319> different" + }, + { + "start": 2578.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computing it may be a whole different" + }, + { + "start": 2578.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computing it may be a whole different game<00:42:58.880> especially<00:42:59.280> for<00:42:59.680> the<00:42:59.920> high<00:43:00.160> level" + }, + { + "start": 2580.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "game especially for the high level" + }, + { + "start": 2580.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "game especially for the high level computation<00:43:01.040> required<00:43:01.520> by<00:43:02.480> um<00:43:02.640> you<00:43:02.800> know" + }, + { + "start": 2583.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation required by um you know" + }, + { + "start": 2583.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation required by um you know intelligence<00:43:03.680> and<00:43:03.920> cognition." + }, + { + "start": 2585.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "intelligence and cognition." + }, + { + "start": 2586.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "intelligence and cognition. Waves<00:43:06.400> operate<00:43:06.720> on<00:43:06.880> the<00:43:07.040> right<00:43:07.200> scale.<00:43:07.599> You're" + }, + { + "start": 2587.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Waves operate on the right scale. You're" + }, + { + "start": 2587.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Waves operate on the right scale. You're not<00:43:08.000> don't<00:43:08.079> have<00:43:08.240> to<00:43:08.319> worry<00:43:08.480> about" + }, + { + "start": 2588.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "not don't have to worry about" + }, + { + "start": 2588.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "not don't have to worry about individuals<00:43:09.440> and<00:43:09.760> those<00:43:10.160> you're<00:43:10.400> you're" + }, + { + "start": 2590.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "individuals and those you're you're" + }, + { + "start": 2590.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "individuals and those you're you're you're<00:43:10.720> you're<00:43:11.520> operating<00:43:11.839> on<00:43:12.079> whole" + }, + { + "start": 2592.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you're you're operating on whole" + }, + { + "start": 2592.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you're you're operating on whole sections<00:43:12.720> or<00:43:12.960> crowds<00:43:13.359> of<00:43:13.520> neurons" + }, + { + "start": 2593.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sections or crowds of neurons" + }, + { + "start": 2593.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "sections or crowds of neurons simultaneously<00:43:14.960> by<00:43:15.200> a<00:43:15.359> wave<00:43:15.599> function<00:43:16.000> which" + }, + { + "start": 2596.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "simultaneously by a wave function which" + }, + { + "start": 2596.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "simultaneously by a wave function which is<00:43:16.240> a<00:43:16.480> simple<00:43:16.800> function<00:43:18.240> and<00:43:18.480> they're" + }, + { + "start": 2598.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is a simple function and they're" + }, + { + "start": 2598.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is a simple function and they're mathematically<00:43:19.359> easy<00:43:19.680> way<00:43:20.000> can<00:43:20.560> gain<00:43:20.880> control" + }, + { + "start": 2601.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mathematically easy way can gain control" + }, + { + "start": 2601.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mathematically easy way can gain control over<00:43:21.359> a<00:43:21.599> complex<00:43:22.000> system<00:43:23.200> and<00:43:23.440> can<00:43:23.599> they<00:43:23.839> can" + }, + { + "start": 2603.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "over a complex system and can they can" + }, + { + "start": 2603.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "over a complex system and can they can perform<00:43:24.720> highly<00:43:25.280> efficient<00:43:26.000> analog<00:43:26.640> comp" + }, + { + "start": 2607.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "perform highly efficient analog comp" + }, + { + "start": 2607.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "perform highly efficient analog comp computation." + }, + { + "start": 2608.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation." + }, + { + "start": 2608.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation. So<00:43:29.040> I<00:43:29.280> want<00:43:29.359> to<00:43:29.440> leave<00:43:29.599> you<00:43:29.760> with<00:43:29.920> the<00:43:30.079> thought" + }, + { + "start": 2610.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So I want to leave you with the thought" + }, + { + "start": 2610.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So I want to leave you with the thought that<00:43:30.560> cognition<00:43:31.119> and<00:43:31.280> consciousness<00:43:32.000> is<00:43:32.240> not" + }, + { + "start": 2612.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that cognition and consciousness is not" + }, + { + "start": 2612.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that cognition and consciousness is not digital<00:43:33.200> or<00:43:33.520> logic<00:43:33.920> gate<00:43:34.160> or<00:43:34.400> connectionism." + }, + { + "start": 2615.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "digital or logic gate or connectionism." + }, + { + "start": 2615.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "digital or logic gate or connectionism. It's<00:43:35.599> analog" + }, + { + "start": 2617.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "It's analog" + }, + { + "start": 2617.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "It's analog analog<00:43:37.839> computation<00:43:38.480> lets<00:43:38.800> exist<00:43:39.200> wave<00:43:39.599> wave" + }, + { + "start": 2619.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "analog computation lets exist wave wave" + }, + { + "start": 2619.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "analog computation lets exist wave wave patterns<00:43:40.160> in<00:43:40.319> your<00:43:40.400> brain.<00:43:40.640> These<00:43:40.800> wave" + }, + { + "start": 2621.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns in your brain. These wave" + }, + { + "start": 2621.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns in your brain. These wave patterns<00:43:41.359> in<00:43:41.520> the<00:43:41.680> brain<00:43:42.079> are<00:43:42.400> patterns<00:43:42.720> of" + }, + { + "start": 2622.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns in the brain are patterns of" + }, + { + "start": 2622.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns in the brain are patterns of excitation<00:43:43.599> and<00:43:43.839> inhibition.<00:43:44.800> More<00:43:45.040> energy" + }, + { + "start": 2625.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "excitation and inhibition. More energy" + }, + { + "start": 2625.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "excitation and inhibition. More energy less<00:43:45.760> energy.<00:43:46.560> That<00:43:46.880> is<00:43:47.040> how<00:43:47.200> your<00:43:47.440> brain" + }, + { + "start": 2627.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "less energy. That is how your brain" + }, + { + "start": 2627.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "less energy. That is how your brain works.<00:43:48.240> That's<00:43:48.560> how<00:43:48.720> your<00:43:48.960> brain<00:43:49.200> works." + }, + { + "start": 2629.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "works. That's how your brain works." + }, + { + "start": 2629.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "works. That's how your brain works. Okay.<00:43:50.079> So<00:43:50.240> what<00:43:50.480> analog<00:43:51.200> computation<00:43:51.760> allows" + }, + { + "start": 2632.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Okay. So what analog computation allows" + }, + { + "start": 2632.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Okay. So what analog computation allows is<00:43:52.720> one<00:43:53.040> pattern<00:43:53.359> of<00:43:53.520> excitation,<00:43:54.640> one<00:43:54.880> wave" + }, + { + "start": 2635.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is one pattern of excitation, one wave" + }, + { + "start": 2635.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is one pattern of excitation, one wave pattern<00:43:55.440> in<00:43:55.680> your<00:43:55.839> cortex<00:43:56.400> to<00:43:56.640> come<00:43:56.800> together" + }, + { + "start": 2637.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "pattern in your cortex to come together" + }, + { + "start": 2637.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "pattern in your cortex to come together and<00:43:57.280> interact<00:43:57.680> with<00:43:57.839> another<00:43:58.079> wave<00:43:58.400> pattern" + }, + { + "start": 2638.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and interact with another wave pattern" + }, + { + "start": 2638.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and interact with another wave pattern and<00:43:59.280> generate<00:43:59.680> a<00:43:59.920> third<00:44:00.160> wave<00:44:00.480> pattern,<00:44:00.800> a" + }, + { + "start": 2640.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and generate a third wave pattern, a" + }, + { + "start": 2640.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and generate a third wave pattern, a brand<00:44:01.119> new<00:44:01.359> wave<00:44:01.599> pattern<00:44:02.319> in<00:44:02.560> a" + }, + { + "start": 2642.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brand new wave pattern in a" + }, + { + "start": 2642.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brand new wave pattern in a computationally<00:44:03.599> principled<00:44:04.640> predictable" + }, + { + "start": 2645.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computationally principled predictable" + }, + { + "start": 2645.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computationally principled predictable way.<00:44:05.839> And<00:44:06.000> if<00:44:06.160> it's<00:44:06.400> predictable<00:44:06.880> and" + }, + { + "start": 2647.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "way. And if it's predictable and" + }, + { + "start": 2647.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "way. And if it's predictable and principle<00:44:07.280> in<00:44:07.440> that<00:44:07.520> way,<00:44:07.760> evolution<00:44:08.240> could" + }, + { + "start": 2648.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "principle in that way, evolution could" + }, + { + "start": 2648.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "principle in that way, evolution could take<00:44:08.560> advantage<00:44:08.880> of<00:44:09.040> it." + }, + { + "start": 2650.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "take advantage of it." + }, + { + "start": 2650.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "take advantage of it. Now<00:44:11.280> consciousness<00:44:12.240> virtually<00:44:12.640> every" + }, + { + "start": 2653.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now consciousness virtually every" + }, + { + "start": 2653.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Now consciousness virtually every biological<00:44:13.760> theory<00:44:14.079> of<00:44:14.240> consciousness" + }, + { + "start": 2654.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "biological theory of consciousness" + }, + { + "start": 2654.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "biological theory of consciousness proposes<00:44:15.359> that<00:44:15.839> consciousness<00:44:16.480> requires" + }, + { + "start": 2657.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "proposes that consciousness requires" + }, + { + "start": 2657.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "proposes that consciousness requires somehow<00:44:17.599> your<00:44:17.839> cortex<00:44:18.319> be<00:44:18.560> unified<00:44:19.520> create" + }, + { + "start": 2659.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "somehow your cortex be unified create" + }, + { + "start": 2659.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "somehow your cortex be unified create this<00:44:20.079> metaansemble<00:44:21.200> meta<00:44:21.599> network<00:44:21.920> that" + }, + { + "start": 2662.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this metaansemble meta network that" + }, + { + "start": 2662.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this metaansemble meta network that unifies<00:44:22.640> your<00:44:22.880> cortex<00:44:23.599> to<00:44:23.839> create<00:44:24.079> the" + }, + { + "start": 2664.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "unifies your cortex to create the" + }, + { + "start": 2664.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "unifies your cortex to create the unified<00:44:24.880> experience<00:44:25.280> of<00:44:25.440> consciousness." + }, + { + "start": 2665.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "unified experience of consciousness." + }, + { + "start": 2665.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "unified experience of consciousness. That's<00:44:26.000> what<00:44:26.160> consciousness<00:44:26.640> is.<00:44:26.880> It's<00:44:26.960> a" + }, + { + "start": 2667.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "That's what consciousness is. It's a" + }, + { + "start": 2667.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "That's what consciousness is. It's a unified<00:44:27.599> experience.<00:44:28.480> So<00:44:28.720> somehow<00:44:29.119> your<00:44:29.280> your" + }, + { + "start": 2669.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "unified experience. So somehow your your" + }, + { + "start": 2669.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "unified experience. So somehow your your brain<00:44:29.839> has<00:44:30.000> to<00:44:30.160> do<00:44:30.319> this<00:44:30.560> but<00:44:30.720> they're<00:44:31.040> very" + }, + { + "start": 2671.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain has to do this but they're very" + }, + { + "start": 2671.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain has to do this but they're very vague<00:44:32.160> on<00:44:32.319> how<00:44:32.560> exactly<00:44:32.880> your<00:44:33.119> brain<00:44:33.359> does" + }, + { + "start": 2673.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "vague on how exactly your brain does" + }, + { + "start": 2673.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "vague on how exactly your brain does this.<00:44:34.079> Well,<00:44:34.319> I<00:44:34.480> want<00:44:34.560> to<00:44:34.720> suggest<00:44:34.960> that<00:44:35.200> when" + }, + { + "start": 2675.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this. Well, I want to suggest that when" + }, + { + "start": 2675.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "this. Well, I want to suggest that when brain<00:44:35.760> wave<00:44:36.079> patterns<00:44:36.480> produced<00:44:36.720> by<00:44:36.960> analog" + }, + { + "start": 2677.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain wave patterns produced by analog" + }, + { + "start": 2677.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain wave patterns produced by analog computation,<00:44:38.160> when<00:44:38.400> wave<00:44:38.720> patterns<00:44:39.119> come" + }, + { + "start": 2679.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation, when wave patterns come" + }, + { + "start": 2679.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation, when wave patterns come together<00:44:39.680> and<00:44:39.920> produce<00:44:40.319> new<00:44:40.640> wave<00:44:40.960> patterns" + }, + { + "start": 2681.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "together and produce new wave patterns" + }, + { + "start": 2681.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "together and produce new wave patterns using<00:44:42.000> analog<00:44:42.480> computation,<00:44:43.119> when<00:44:43.280> these" + }, + { + "start": 2683.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "using analog computation, when these" + }, + { + "start": 2683.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "using analog computation, when these wave<00:44:43.760> patterns<00:44:44.720> become<00:44:45.119> large<00:44:45.440> and" + }, + { + "start": 2685.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave patterns become large and" + }, + { + "start": 2685.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave patterns become large and organized,<00:44:46.240> large<00:44:46.480> and<00:44:46.640> organized<00:44:47.040> enough<00:44:47.200> to" + }, + { + "start": 2687.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organized, large and organized enough to" + }, + { + "start": 2687.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organized, large and organized enough to bind<00:44:47.680> the<00:44:47.920> cortex<00:44:48.560> into<00:44:48.800> a<00:44:49.040> unified<00:44:49.520> state," + }, + { + "start": 2690.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "bind the cortex into a unified state," + }, + { + "start": 2690.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "bind the cortex into a unified state, the<00:44:50.560> result<00:44:50.880> is<00:44:51.119> conscious<00:44:51.520> experience.<00:44:52.800> So," + }, + { + "start": 2692.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the result is conscious experience. So," + }, + { + "start": 2692.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the result is conscious experience. So, I<00:44:53.280> thank<00:44:53.440> you<00:44:53.680> for<00:44:54.000> your<00:44:54.240> attention<00:44:54.720> and<00:44:54.960> I'm" + }, + { + "start": 2695.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I thank you for your attention and I'm" + }, + { + "start": 2695.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I thank you for your attention and I'm more<00:44:55.359> than<00:44:55.520> happy<00:44:55.760> to<00:44:55.920> take<00:44:56.160> questions<00:44:56.560> now." + }, + { + "start": 2697.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "more than happy to take questions now." + }, + { + "start": 2697.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "more than happy to take questions now. Thank<00:44:57.520> you." + }, + { + "start": 2702.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Thank<00:45:02.240> you." + }, + { + "start": 2703.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Thank you." + }, + { + "start": 2703.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Thank you. Who<00:45:04.000> want<00:45:04.240> to<00:45:04.400> go<00:45:04.560> first?" + }, + { + "start": 2719.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Thank<00:45:19.839> you.<00:45:20.079> I<00:45:20.319> have<00:45:20.480> a<00:45:20.800> I<00:45:21.119> have<00:45:21.200> a<00:45:21.359> question" + }, + { + "start": 2721.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Thank you. I have a I have a question" + }, + { + "start": 2721.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Thank you. I have a I have a question that<00:45:21.920> was<00:45:22.079> very<00:45:22.319> interesting.<00:45:23.040> Um,<00:45:24.240> so<00:45:24.800> you" + }, + { + "start": 2725.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that was very interesting. Um, so you" + }, + { + "start": 2725.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that was very interesting. Um, so you mentioned<00:45:25.440> that<00:45:25.839> the<00:45:26.400> uh<00:45:26.640> waves<00:45:27.200> are<00:45:27.520> a" + }, + { + "start": 2727.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mentioned that the uh waves are a" + }, + { + "start": 2727.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mentioned that the uh waves are a natural<00:45:28.079> way<00:45:28.319> to<00:45:28.480> produce<00:45:28.880> complex" + }, + { + "start": 2729.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "natural way to produce complex" + }, + { + "start": 2729.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "natural way to produce complex organization.<00:45:30.960> And<00:45:31.200> so<00:45:32.000> we've<00:45:32.319> been<00:45:32.560> seeing" + }, + { + "start": 2732.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organization. And so we've been seeing" + }, + { + "start": 2732.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "organization. And so we've been seeing traveling<00:45:33.359> waves<00:45:33.839> inside<00:45:34.400> frog<00:45:34.720> embryos,<00:45:35.280> but" + }, + { + "start": 2735.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "traveling waves inside frog embryos, but" + }, + { + "start": 2735.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "traveling waves inside frog embryos, but also<00:45:35.839> between<00:45:36.240> them.<00:45:37.119> And<00:45:37.440> I'm<00:45:37.760> wondering<00:45:38.079> if" + }, + { + "start": 2738.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "also between them. And I'm wondering if" + }, + { + "start": 2738.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "also between them. And I'm wondering if these<00:45:38.480> waves<00:45:38.800> could<00:45:39.040> play<00:45:39.200> like<00:45:39.440> a<00:45:39.599> similar" + }, + { + "start": 2740.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these waves could play like a similar" + }, + { + "start": 2740.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these waves could play like a similar similar<00:45:40.560> role<00:45:40.800> in<00:45:41.040> the<00:45:41.200> brain<00:45:41.440> during" + }, + { + "start": 2741.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "similar role in the brain during" + }, + { + "start": 2741.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "similar role in the brain during cognitive<00:45:42.319> processing<00:45:43.280> and<00:45:43.520> maybe<00:45:43.839> also<00:45:44.160> do" + }, + { + "start": 2744.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cognitive processing and maybe also do" + }, + { + "start": 2744.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cognitive processing and maybe also do some<00:45:44.560> analog<00:45:45.040> computation.<00:45:46.160> And<00:45:46.400> I'm" + }, + { + "start": 2746.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "some analog computation. And I'm" + }, + { + "start": 2746.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "some analog computation. And I'm wondering<00:45:47.440> what<00:45:47.680> your<00:45:48.000> opinion<00:45:48.319> is<00:45:48.720> like<00:45:48.880> what" + }, + { + "start": 2749.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wondering what your opinion is like what" + }, + { + "start": 2749.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wondering what your opinion is like what does<00:45:49.280> this<00:45:49.599> non-neural<00:45:50.240> wave<00:45:50.640> need<00:45:51.040> to<00:45:51.280> call" + }, + { + "start": 2751.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "does this non-neural wave need to call" + }, + { + "start": 2751.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "does this non-neural wave need to call it<00:45:51.760> cognitive<00:45:52.240> or<00:45:52.480> brainike?" + }, + { + "start": 2754.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it cognitive or brainike?" + }, + { + "start": 2754.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it cognitive or brainike? >> Oh,<00:45:55.040> I<00:45:55.200> mean<00:45:55.359> waves<00:45:55.760> are<00:45:55.920> are<00:45:56.400> useful<00:45:56.960> physics" + }, + { + "start": 2757.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Oh, I mean waves are are useful physics" + }, + { + "start": 2757.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Oh, I mean waves are are useful physics that<00:45:57.520> your<00:45:57.599> brain<00:45:57.839> could<00:45:58.000> exploit<00:45:58.319> for<00:45:58.480> a<00:45:58.640> wide" + }, + { + "start": 2758.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that your brain could exploit for a wide" + }, + { + "start": 2758.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that your brain could exploit for a wide variety<00:45:59.200> of<00:45:59.359> reasons.<00:45:59.680> And<00:45:59.839> much<00:46:00.000> like<00:46:00.160> you're" + }, + { + "start": 2760.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "variety of reasons. And much like you're" + }, + { + "start": 2760.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "variety of reasons. And much like you're seeing<00:46:00.400> in<00:46:00.480> the<00:46:00.560> frog<00:46:00.800> embryo,<00:46:01.280> you're" + }, + { + "start": 2761.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "seeing in the frog embryo, you're" + }, + { + "start": 2761.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "seeing in the frog embryo, you're developing<00:46:01.839> retina<00:46:02.319> has<00:46:02.560> ways<00:46:02.880> moving<00:46:03.119> across" + }, + { + "start": 2763.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "developing retina has ways moving across" + }, + { + "start": 2763.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "developing retina has ways moving across it.<00:46:03.599> So<00:46:03.760> before<00:46:04.000> you<00:46:04.160> can<00:46:04.240> even<00:46:04.480> see,<00:46:05.280> there's" + }, + { + "start": 2765.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it. So before you can even see, there's" + }, + { + "start": 2765.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it. So before you can even see, there's these<00:46:05.839> ways<00:46:06.000> that<00:46:06.240> move<00:46:06.400> across<00:46:06.640> your<00:46:06.880> retina" + }, + { + "start": 2767.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these ways that move across your retina" + }, + { + "start": 2767.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "these ways that move across your retina that<00:46:07.680> allow<00:46:07.920> the<00:46:08.079> the<00:46:08.480> retina<00:46:08.880> to<00:46:09.040> organize" + }, + { + "start": 2769.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that allow the the retina to organize" + }, + { + "start": 2769.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that allow the the retina to organize itself<00:46:09.920> into<00:46:10.319> into<00:46:10.960> regular<00:46:11.359> regular" + }, + { + "start": 2771.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "itself into into regular regular" + }, + { + "start": 2771.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "itself into into regular regular patterns.<00:46:12.480> So<00:46:12.720> yeah<00:46:12.880> and<00:46:13.040> I<00:46:13.680> you<00:46:13.760> know<00:46:13.920> Michael" + }, + { + "start": 2774.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns. So yeah and I you know Michael" + }, + { + "start": 2774.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns. So yeah and I you know Michael has<00:46:14.400> shown<00:46:14.560> that<00:46:14.960> uh<00:46:15.119> you<00:46:15.200> know<00:46:15.599> electric" + }, + { + "start": 2775.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "has shown that uh you know electric" + }, + { + "start": 2776.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "has shown that uh you know electric fields<00:46:16.480> play<00:46:16.720> a<00:46:16.880> role<00:46:17.119> in<00:46:17.280> in<00:46:17.839> um<00:46:18.400> in" + }, + { + "start": 2778.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fields play a role in in um in" + }, + { + "start": 2778.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fields play a role in in um in development<00:46:19.280> in<00:46:20.079> uh<00:46:20.800> in<00:46:21.200> um<00:46:22.319> so<00:46:22.880> you<00:46:23.040> know<00:46:24.079> wave" + }, + { + "start": 2784.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "development in uh in um so you know wave" + }, + { + "start": 2784.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "development in uh in um so you know wave I<00:46:24.800> I<00:46:24.960> wouldn't<00:46:25.200> say<00:46:25.359> waves<00:46:25.839> become<00:46:26.240> conscious" + }, + { + "start": 2786.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I I wouldn't say waves become conscious" + }, + { + "start": 2786.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I I wouldn't say waves become conscious wave<00:46:27.200> electrical" + }, + { + "start": 2788.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave electrical" + }, + { + "start": 2788.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave electrical biological<00:46:29.599> systems<00:46:30.079> produce<00:46:30.400> electrical" + }, + { + "start": 2790.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "biological systems produce electrical" + }, + { + "start": 2790.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "biological systems produce electrical fields<00:46:31.760> and<00:46:32.560> your<00:46:32.880> nervous<00:46:33.359> nervous<00:46:33.760> systems" + }, + { + "start": 2793.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fields and your nervous nervous systems" + }, + { + "start": 2794.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fields and your nervous nervous systems will<00:46:34.240> naturally<00:46:34.640> produce<00:46:35.040> oscillations<00:46:35.680> and" + }, + { + "start": 2795.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "will naturally produce oscillations and" + }, + { + "start": 2795.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "will naturally produce oscillations and waves<00:46:36.160> because<00:46:36.400> your<00:46:36.640> nervous<00:46:36.880> system<00:46:37.119> is" + }, + { + "start": 2797.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves because your nervous system is" + }, + { + "start": 2797.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves because your nervous system is composed<00:46:37.599> of<00:46:37.760> things<00:46:38.000> called<00:46:38.240> recurrent" + }, + { + "start": 2798.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "composed of things called recurrent" + }, + { + "start": 2798.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "composed of things called recurrent connections.<00:46:39.680> neurons<00:46:40.480> loop<00:46:40.800> back<00:46:41.040> on" + }, + { + "start": 2801.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections. neurons loop back on" + }, + { + "start": 2801.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections. neurons loop back on themselves<00:46:42.000> like<00:46:42.319> snakes<00:46:42.720> eating<00:46:43.040> their<00:46:43.200> own" + }, + { + "start": 2803.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "themselves like snakes eating their own" + }, + { + "start": 2803.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "themselves like snakes eating their own tail<00:46:43.839> and<00:46:44.079> this<00:46:44.240> happens<00:46:44.480> on<00:46:44.640> a<00:46:44.800> short<00:46:45.119> in<00:46:45.359> a" + }, + { + "start": 2805.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "tail and this happens on a short in a" + }, + { + "start": 2805.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "tail and this happens on a short in a short<00:46:45.839> distance<00:46:46.560> and<00:46:46.800> also<00:46:47.119> will<00:46:47.280> cross<00:46:47.599> long" + }, + { + "start": 2807.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "short distance and also will cross long" + }, + { + "start": 2807.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "short distance and also will cross long distance<00:46:48.079> in<00:46:48.240> your<00:46:48.400> cortex.<00:46:49.119> So<00:46:49.280> your<00:46:49.520> whole" + }, + { + "start": 2809.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "distance in your cortex. So your whole" + }, + { + "start": 2809.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "distance in your cortex. So your whole cortex<00:46:50.560> your<00:46:50.800> whole<00:46:50.960> nervous<00:46:51.280> system<00:46:51.520> is<00:46:51.760> set" + }, + { + "start": 2811.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex your whole nervous system is set" + }, + { + "start": 2811.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex your whole nervous system is set up<00:46:52.079> to<00:46:52.240> produce<00:46:52.480> these<00:46:52.720> oscillations<00:46:53.839> and" + }, + { + "start": 2813.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "up to produce these oscillations and" + }, + { + "start": 2814.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "up to produce these oscillations and it's<00:46:54.160> just<00:46:54.319> another<00:46:54.640> thing<00:46:54.720> that<00:46:55.040> evolution" + }, + { + "start": 2815.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it's just another thing that evolution" + }, + { + "start": 2815.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it's just another thing that evolution could<00:46:55.760> exploit.<00:46:56.400> So<00:46:56.560> I<00:46:56.800> think<00:46:56.880> about<00:46:57.040> the<00:46:57.359> you" + }, + { + "start": 2817.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "could exploit. So I think about the you" + }, + { + "start": 2817.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "could exploit. So I think about the you know<00:46:57.760> very<00:46:58.319> this<00:46:58.560> probably<00:46:58.800> happened<00:46:59.040> very" + }, + { + "start": 2819.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know very this probably happened very" + }, + { + "start": 2819.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know very this probably happened very early<00:46:59.599> in<00:46:59.760> in<00:47:00.000> evolution.<00:47:01.040> So<00:47:01.280> probably<00:47:01.680> you" + }, + { + "start": 2821.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "early in in evolution. So probably you" + }, + { + "start": 2821.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "early in in evolution. So probably you know<00:47:01.920> imagine<00:47:02.240> your<00:47:02.560> simplest<00:47:02.960> nervous" + }, + { + "start": 2823.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know imagine your simplest nervous" + }, + { + "start": 2823.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know imagine your simplest nervous system<00:47:03.599> all<00:47:03.680> they're<00:47:03.920> doing<00:47:04.000> is<00:47:04.240> responding" + }, + { + "start": 2824.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "system all they're doing is responding" + }, + { + "start": 2824.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "system all they're doing is responding to<00:47:04.800> the<00:47:04.960> outside<00:47:05.280> world<00:47:05.520> like<00:47:05.680> a<00:47:05.839> thermostat" + }, + { + "start": 2826.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to the outside world like a thermostat" + }, + { + "start": 2826.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to the outside world like a thermostat which<00:47:06.640> means<00:47:06.800> that<00:47:07.280> the<00:47:07.599> organization<00:47:08.160> of<00:47:08.319> the" + }, + { + "start": 2828.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "which means that the organization of the" + }, + { + "start": 2828.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "which means that the organization of the nervous<00:47:08.800> system<00:47:09.200> is<00:47:09.520> depends<00:47:09.839> on<00:47:10.000> the<00:47:10.240> outside" + }, + { + "start": 2830.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "nervous system is depends on the outside" + }, + { + "start": 2830.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "nervous system is depends on the outside world.<00:47:11.680> Then<00:47:11.839> you<00:47:11.920> get<00:47:12.160> a<00:47:12.400> bunch<00:47:12.480> of<00:47:12.640> neurons" + }, + { + "start": 2832.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "world. Then you get a bunch of neurons" + }, + { + "start": 2832.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "world. Then you get a bunch of neurons hooked<00:47:13.280> together<00:47:13.440> into<00:47:13.680> a<00:47:13.839> loop<00:47:14.000> and<00:47:14.160> now<00:47:14.319> the" + }, + { + "start": 2834.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "hooked together into a loop and now the" + }, + { + "start": 2834.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "hooked together into a loop and now the ner<00:47:15.200> the<00:47:15.280> the<00:47:15.440> nervous<00:47:15.680> system<00:47:15.839> will<00:47:16.000> begin" + }, + { + "start": 2836.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "ner the the nervous system will begin" + }, + { + "start": 2836.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "ner the the nervous system will begin oscillating.<00:47:17.119> So<00:47:17.359> far<00:47:17.599> all<00:47:17.760> it's<00:47:18.000> doing<00:47:18.160> is" + }, + { + "start": 2838.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "oscillating. So far all it's doing is" + }, + { + "start": 2838.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "oscillating. So far all it's doing is oscillating<00:47:19.200> but<00:47:19.440> right<00:47:19.680> there<00:47:19.920> there's<00:47:20.160> an" + }, + { + "start": 2840.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "oscillating but right there there's an" + }, + { + "start": 2840.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "oscillating but right there there's an internal<00:47:20.880> organization<00:47:21.680> something<00:47:21.920> separate" + }, + { + "start": 2842.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "internal organization something separate" + }, + { + "start": 2842.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "internal organization something separate from<00:47:22.400> the<00:47:22.560> outside<00:47:22.960> world<00:47:23.599> that<00:47:24.319> evolution" + }, + { + "start": 2844.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "from the outside world that evolution" + }, + { + "start": 2844.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "from the outside world that evolution could<00:47:25.119> now<00:47:25.359> exploit<00:47:25.920> push<00:47:26.160> around<00:47:26.480> to<00:47:26.880> do<00:47:27.040> more" + }, + { + "start": 2847.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "could now exploit push around to do more" + }, + { + "start": 2847.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "could now exploit push around to do more complex<00:47:27.760> stuff<00:47:28.000> with.<00:47:28.240> So<00:47:28.400> I<00:47:28.640> I<00:47:28.960> have<00:47:29.040> no<00:47:29.200> doubt" + }, + { + "start": 2849.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "complex stuff with. So I I have no doubt" + }, + { + "start": 2849.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "complex stuff with. So I I have no doubt that<00:47:29.839> uh<00:47:30.000> that<00:47:30.480> um<00:47:30.720> the<00:47:31.520> um<00:47:31.680> electric<00:47:32.000> field" + }, + { + "start": 2852.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that uh that um the um electric field" + }, + { + "start": 2852.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that uh that um the um electric field waves<00:47:32.720> play<00:47:32.960> a<00:47:33.200> wide<00:47:33.599> variety<00:47:33.920> of<00:47:34.079> roles<00:47:34.319> in" + }, + { + "start": 2854.55, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves play a wide variety of roles in" + }, + { + "start": 2854.56, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves play a wide variety of roles in biology<00:47:35.200> not<00:47:35.359> just<00:47:35.520> in<00:47:35.760> cognition." + }, + { + "start": 2861.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Hey<00:47:41.680> uh<00:47:42.079> thank<00:47:42.240> you<00:47:42.400> very<00:47:42.640> much.<00:47:43.200> I<00:47:43.440> have<00:47:43.520> a" + }, + { + "start": 2863.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Hey uh thank you very much. I have a" + }, + { + "start": 2863.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Hey uh thank you very much. I have a question.<00:47:44.400> I<00:47:44.640> want<00:47:44.880> to<00:47:45.599> relate<00:47:46.240> this<00:47:46.880> uh<00:47:47.040> to" + }, + { + "start": 2867.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "question. I want to relate this uh to" + }, + { + "start": 2867.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "question. I want to relate this uh to physics.<00:47:48.400> So<00:47:48.640> in<00:47:48.960> physics<00:47:49.680> uh<00:47:50.240> we<00:47:50.560> have<00:47:50.800> a" + }, + { + "start": 2871.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "physics. So in physics uh we have a" + }, + { + "start": 2871.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "physics. So in physics uh we have a magnet<00:47:52.000> mechanical<00:47:52.720> waves<00:47:53.280> and<00:47:53.599> they<00:47:53.920> can" + }, + { + "start": 2874.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "magnet mechanical waves and they can" + }, + { + "start": 2874.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "magnet mechanical waves and they can form<00:47:55.280> a<00:47:55.520> very<00:47:55.920> interesting<00:47:56.720> behavior<00:47:57.200> like<00:47:57.760> uh" + }, + { + "start": 2877.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "form a very interesting behavior like uh" + }, + { + "start": 2878.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "form a very interesting behavior like uh standing<00:47:58.480> waves<00:47:59.200> and<00:47:59.760> uh<00:48:00.319> and<00:48:00.640> also<00:48:01.839> uh<00:48:02.160> so<00:48:02.400> so" + }, + { + "start": 2882.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "standing waves and uh and also uh so so" + }, + { + "start": 2882.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "standing waves and uh and also uh so so I<00:48:03.119> was<00:48:03.359> wondering<00:48:03.839> what's<00:48:04.160> the<00:48:04.400> difference<00:48:04.960> or" + }, + { + "start": 2885.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I was wondering what's the difference or" + }, + { + "start": 2885.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I was wondering what's the difference or and<00:48:05.839> dis<00:48:06.319> uh<00:48:07.040> uh<00:48:07.280> similarity<00:48:08.000> between<00:48:08.480> these" + }, + { + "start": 2888.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and dis uh uh similarity between these" + }, + { + "start": 2888.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and dis uh uh similarity between these waves<00:48:09.359> in<00:48:09.599> brain<00:48:10.000> and<00:48:10.720> uh<00:48:11.599> and<00:48:12.000> physical" + }, + { + "start": 2893.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves in brain and uh and physical" + }, + { + "start": 2893.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves in brain and uh and physical physical<00:48:14.160> waves.<00:48:14.800> Yeah.<00:48:16.240> Well,<00:48:16.560> in<00:48:16.800> the<00:48:16.960> end" + }, + { + "start": 2897.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "physical waves. Yeah. Well, in the end" + }, + { + "start": 2897.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "physical waves. Yeah. Well, in the end waves<00:48:18.400> are<00:48:18.880> are<00:48:19.119> waves.<00:48:19.599> I<00:48:19.760> mean<00:48:19.920> like<00:48:20.240> they" + }, + { + "start": 2900.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves are are waves. I mean like they" + }, + { + "start": 2900.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves are are waves. I mean like they they<00:48:20.880> you<00:48:21.200> see<00:48:21.760> I<00:48:22.000> mean<00:48:22.079> you<00:48:22.240> could<00:48:22.319> do<00:48:22.720> you" + }, + { + "start": 2902.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "they you see I mean you could do you" + }, + { + "start": 2902.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "they you see I mean you could do you could<00:48:22.960> do<00:48:23.200> computation<00:48:23.760> for<00:48:23.839> example<00:48:24.160> with" + }, + { + "start": 2904.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "could do computation for example with" + }, + { + "start": 2904.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "could do computation for example with mechanical<00:48:25.760> discs<00:48:26.160> and<00:48:26.319> wheels<00:48:26.559> and<00:48:26.880> also<00:48:27.520> you" + }, + { + "start": 2907.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mechanical discs and wheels and also you" + }, + { + "start": 2907.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mechanical discs and wheels and also you know<00:48:28.240> um<00:48:28.400> sound<00:48:28.640> waves<00:48:28.960> and<00:48:29.040> and<00:48:29.680> electrical" + }, + { + "start": 2910.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know um sound waves and and electrical" + }, + { + "start": 2910.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know um sound waves and and electrical waves.<00:48:30.720> So<00:48:30.960> in<00:48:31.119> terms<00:48:31.280> of<00:48:31.440> the<00:48:31.760> physics<00:48:32.079> of<00:48:32.400> I'm" + }, + { + "start": 2912.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves. So in terms of the physics of I'm" + }, + { + "start": 2912.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves. So in terms of the physics of I'm not<00:48:32.720> sure<00:48:32.880> what<00:48:33.119> you<00:48:33.200> mean<00:48:33.280> by<00:48:33.440> the<00:48:33.520> question<00:48:34.000> I" + }, + { + "start": 2914.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "not sure what you mean by the question I" + }, + { + "start": 2914.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "not sure what you mean by the question I mean<00:48:34.480> the<00:48:34.800> same<00:48:35.520> wave<00:48:35.839> function<00:48:36.240> describe" + }, + { + "start": 2917.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mean the same wave function describe" + }, + { + "start": 2917.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mean the same wave function describe electrical<00:48:37.599> waves<00:48:37.920> as<00:48:38.240> mechanical<00:48:38.720> waves.<00:48:39.040> So" + }, + { + "start": 2919.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical waves as mechanical waves. So" + }, + { + "start": 2919.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical waves as mechanical waves. So I'm<00:48:39.599> not<00:48:39.920> um<00:48:40.720> sure<00:48:40.960> what<00:48:41.200> what" + }, + { + "start": 2921.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I'm not um sure what what" + }, + { + "start": 2922.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I'm not um sure what what >> yeah<00:48:42.640> by<00:48:42.720> the<00:48:42.880> physics." + }, + { + "start": 2923.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> yeah by the physics." + }, + { + "start": 2923.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> yeah by the physics. So<00:48:44.000> I<00:48:44.160> I<00:48:44.400> mean<00:48:44.640> I<00:48:44.880> mean<00:48:45.040> exactly<00:48:45.440> the<00:48:45.680> the" + }, + { + "start": 2926.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So I I mean I mean exactly the the" + }, + { + "start": 2926.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "So I I mean I mean exactly the the mechanical<00:48:46.559> waves<00:48:47.200> because<00:48:47.520> in<00:48:47.760> in<00:48:48.559> like<00:48:48.880> if" + }, + { + "start": 2929.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mechanical waves because in in like if" + }, + { + "start": 2929.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mechanical waves because in in like if you<00:48:49.359> consider<00:48:49.920> wave<00:48:50.319> equation<00:48:51.040> in<00:48:51.359> physics" + }, + { + "start": 2932.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you consider wave equation in physics" + }, + { + "start": 2932.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you consider wave equation in physics they<00:48:53.040> they're<00:48:53.359> not<00:48:53.599> directional<00:48:54.240> but<00:48:54.800> uh<00:48:55.599> in" + }, + { + "start": 2935.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "they they're not directional but uh in" + }, + { + "start": 2936.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "they they're not directional but uh in neuron<00:48:56.800> uh<00:48:57.839> on<00:48:58.319> under<00:48:58.720> my<00:48:58.960> understanding<00:48:59.520> it" + }, + { + "start": 2939.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuron uh on under my understanding it" + }, + { + "start": 2939.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuron uh on under my understanding it is<00:49:00.000> directional.<00:49:00.640> So" + }, + { + "start": 2940.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is directional. So" + }, + { + "start": 2940.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is directional. So >> yeah<00:49:01.119> yeah<00:49:01.520> I<00:49:01.680> see<00:49:01.760> what<00:49:01.839> you're<00:49:01.920> saying.<00:49:02.720> Yeah" + }, + { + "start": 2943.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> yeah yeah I see what you're saying. Yeah" + }, + { + "start": 2943.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> yeah yeah I see what you're saying. Yeah >> I<00:49:03.280> see<00:49:03.359> what<00:49:03.440> you're<00:49:03.599> saying.<00:49:04.160> Yeah." + }, + { + "start": 2944.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> I see what you're saying. Yeah." + }, + { + "start": 2944.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> I see what you're saying. Yeah. Interesting.<00:49:04.960> You<00:49:05.119> know,<00:49:05.760> in<00:49:06.000> terms<00:49:06.160> of<00:49:06.319> brain" + }, + { + "start": 2946.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Interesting. You know, in terms of brain" + }, + { + "start": 2946.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Interesting. You know, in terms of brain function,<00:49:06.960> you<00:49:07.200> really<00:49:07.440> wouldn't<00:49:07.680> want<00:49:07.839> a<00:49:08.079> lot" + }, + { + "start": 2948.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "function, you really wouldn't want a lot" + }, + { + "start": 2948.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "function, you really wouldn't want a lot of<00:49:08.319> standing<00:49:08.640> waves<00:49:09.119> in<00:49:09.359> your<00:49:09.440> brain<00:49:09.599> because" + }, + { + "start": 2949.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of standing waves in your brain because" + }, + { + "start": 2949.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of standing waves in your brain because what<00:49:10.000> it<00:49:10.079> means<00:49:10.240> is<00:49:10.480> whole<00:49:10.720> networks<00:49:11.040> are" + }, + { + "start": 2951.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what it means is whole networks are" + }, + { + "start": 2951.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what it means is whole networks are going<00:49:11.359> to<00:49:11.440> be<00:49:11.520> activated<00:49:11.920> and<00:49:12.079> deactivated" + }, + { + "start": 2952.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "going to be activated and deactivated" + }, + { + "start": 2952.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "going to be activated and deactivated like<00:49:12.800> in<00:49:12.960> unison.<00:49:14.160> What<00:49:14.319> you<00:49:14.559> want<00:49:14.640> to<00:49:14.800> see<00:49:14.880> is" + }, + { + "start": 2955.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like in unison. What you want to see is" + }, + { + "start": 2955.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like in unison. What you want to see is you<00:49:15.280> want<00:49:15.359> to<00:49:15.440> see<00:49:15.520> a<00:49:15.760> lot<00:49:15.839> of<00:49:15.920> traveling" + }, + { + "start": 2956.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you want to see a lot of traveling" + }, + { + "start": 2956.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you want to see a lot of traveling waves.<00:49:16.640> Traveling<00:49:16.960> waves<00:49:17.200> are<00:49:17.280> a<00:49:17.520> great<00:49:17.680> way" + }, + { + "start": 2957.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves. Traveling waves are a great way" + }, + { + "start": 2957.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves. Traveling waves are a great way to<00:49:18.640> control<00:49:19.760> um<00:49:20.559> the<00:49:20.800> computation<00:49:21.760> and<00:49:21.920> the" + }, + { + "start": 2962.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to control um the computation and the" + }, + { + "start": 2962.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to control um the computation and the traveling<00:49:22.480> way.<00:49:22.800> So<00:49:22.960> that<00:49:23.119> so<00:49:24.079> the<00:49:24.480> electrical" + }, + { + "start": 2964.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "traveling way. So that so the electrical" + }, + { + "start": 2964.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "traveling way. So that so the electrical field<00:49:25.280> influences<00:49:26.079> I<00:49:26.319> should<00:49:26.480> maybe<00:49:26.640> I<00:49:26.720> should" + }, + { + "start": 2966.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "field influences I should maybe I should" + }, + { + "start": 2966.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "field influences I should maybe I should have<00:49:26.960> mentioned<00:49:27.119> this<00:49:27.280> earlier<00:49:27.440> but" + }, + { + "start": 2967.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have mentioned this earlier but" + }, + { + "start": 2967.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have mentioned this earlier but electrical<00:49:27.920> field<00:49:28.079> influence<00:49:28.400> one<00:49:28.480> thing<00:49:28.720> one" + }, + { + "start": 2968.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical field influence one thing one" + }, + { + "start": 2968.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical field influence one thing one thing<00:49:28.960> they're<00:49:29.200> very<00:49:29.359> useful<00:49:29.599> for<00:49:29.760> is<00:49:30.000> they" + }, + { + "start": 2970.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thing they're very useful for is they" + }, + { + "start": 2970.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thing they're very useful for is they transmit<00:49:31.119> influences<00:49:31.680> around<00:49:31.920> your<00:49:32.160> cortex" + }, + { + "start": 2972.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "transmit influences around your cortex" + }, + { + "start": 2972.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "transmit influences around your cortex 5,000<00:49:33.359> times<00:49:33.680> faster<00:49:34.079> than<00:49:34.319> spiking<00:49:35.520> but" + }, + { + "start": 2975.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "5,000 times faster than spiking but" + }, + { + "start": 2975.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "5,000 times faster than spiking but interestingly<00:49:36.480> the<00:49:36.640> they<00:49:36.880> form<00:49:37.119> these" + }, + { + "start": 2977.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "interestingly the they form these" + }, + { + "start": 2977.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "interestingly the they form these traveling<00:49:37.680> waves.<00:49:38.000> So<00:49:38.079> these<00:49:38.319> traveling" + }, + { + "start": 2978.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "traveling waves. So these traveling" + }, + { + "start": 2978.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "traveling waves. So these traveling waves<00:49:38.880> the<00:49:39.040> peaks<00:49:39.359> of<00:49:39.440> the<00:49:39.599> traveling<00:49:39.920> waves" + }, + { + "start": 2981.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves the peaks of the traveling waves" + }, + { + "start": 2981.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves the peaks of the traveling waves you<00:49:41.119> know<00:49:41.280> when<00:49:41.440> you<00:49:41.599> have<00:49:41.680> an<00:49:41.760> oscillating" + }, + { + "start": 2982.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you know when you have an oscillating" + }, + { + "start": 2982.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you know when you have an oscillating wave<00:49:42.480> the<00:49:42.640> peaks<00:49:42.960> of<00:49:43.040> them<00:49:43.280> move<00:49:43.440> around<00:49:43.680> your" + }, + { + "start": 2983.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave the peaks of them move around your" + }, + { + "start": 2983.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave the peaks of them move around your cortex<00:49:44.720> and<00:49:44.960> they<00:49:45.599> generally<00:49:46.079> follow<00:49:46.400> the" + }, + { + "start": 2986.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex and they generally follow the" + }, + { + "start": 2986.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "cortex and they generally follow the anatomy<00:49:46.960> of<00:49:47.119> cortex<00:49:47.520> and<00:49:47.760> they<00:49:47.920> generally" + }, + { + "start": 2988.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "anatomy of cortex and they generally" + }, + { + "start": 2988.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "anatomy of cortex and they generally move<00:49:48.480> at<00:49:48.640> the<00:49:48.800> speed<00:49:49.040> of<00:49:49.520> spiking<00:49:49.920> and" + }, + { + "start": 2990.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "move at the speed of spiking and" + }, + { + "start": 2990.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "move at the speed of spiking and synaptic<00:49:50.640> transmission.<00:49:51.599> So<00:49:51.760> the<00:49:51.920> peaks<00:49:52.160> of" + }, + { + "start": 2992.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "synaptic transmission. So the peaks of" + }, + { + "start": 2992.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "synaptic transmission. So the peaks of the<00:49:52.400> waves<00:49:52.640> are<00:49:52.800> kind<00:49:52.880> of<00:49:52.960> moving<00:49:53.200> around" + }, + { + "start": 2993.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the waves are kind of moving around" + }, + { + "start": 2993.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the waves are kind of moving around following<00:49:53.839> anatomy<00:49:54.480> but<00:49:54.720> then<00:49:54.880> when" + }, + { + "start": 2995.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "following anatomy but then when" + }, + { + "start": 2995.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "following anatomy but then when something<00:49:55.359> changed<00:49:55.599> in<00:49:55.760> the<00:49:55.920> resonance<00:49:56.240> of" + }, + { + "start": 2996.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "something changed in the resonance of" + }, + { + "start": 2996.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "something changed in the resonance of the<00:49:56.559> system<00:49:57.200> all<00:49:57.359> the<00:49:57.599> changes<00:49:58.079> all<00:49:58.160> the" + }, + { + "start": 2998.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the system all the changes all the" + }, + { + "start": 2998.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the system all the changes all the influences<00:49:58.960> like<00:49:59.359> propagate" + }, + { + "start": 2999.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "influences like propagate" + }, + { + "start": 2999.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "influences like propagate instantaneously<00:50:00.720> in<00:50:00.880> in<00:50:00.960> in<00:50:01.440> the<00:50:01.599> surrounding" + }, + { + "start": 3002.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "instantaneously in in in the surrounding" + }, + { + "start": 3002.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "instantaneously in in in the surrounding uh<00:50:02.640> circuits.<00:50:03.520> So<00:50:03.680> for<00:50:03.920> the<00:50:04.160> so<00:50:04.800> and<00:50:06.000> traveling" + }, + { + "start": 3006.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh circuits. So for the so and traveling" + }, + { + "start": 3006.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh circuits. So for the so and traveling waves<00:50:06.720> are<00:50:06.880> useful<00:50:07.119> for<00:50:07.440> things<00:50:07.599> like<00:50:08.079> um" + }, + { + "start": 3008.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves are useful for things like um" + }, + { + "start": 3008.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "waves are useful for things like um again<00:50:08.480> there<00:50:08.720> I'm<00:50:08.880> giving<00:50:09.040> you<00:50:09.200> biological" + }, + { + "start": 3009.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "again there I'm giving you biological" + }, + { + "start": 3009.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "again there I'm giving you biological not<00:50:10.079> physical<00:50:10.400> explanations<00:50:11.200> but<00:50:11.520> traveling" + }, + { + "start": 3012.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "not physical explanations but traveling" + }, + { + "start": 3012.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "not physical explanations but traveling are<00:50:12.240> useful<00:50:12.480> for<00:50:12.720> things<00:50:12.880> like<00:50:13.359> if<00:50:13.599> you<00:50:13.680> want" + }, + { + "start": 3013.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are useful for things like if you want" + }, + { + "start": 3013.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are useful for things like if you want to<00:50:13.920> bake<00:50:14.240> information<00:50:14.640> into<00:50:14.880> your<00:50:15.040> brain" + }, + { + "start": 3015.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to bake information into your brain" + }, + { + "start": 3015.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to bake information into your brain change<00:50:15.599> connections<00:50:15.920> in<00:50:16.079> your<00:50:16.240> brain<00:50:16.480> there's" + }, + { + "start": 3016.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "change connections in your brain there's" + }, + { + "start": 3016.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "change connections in your brain there's something<00:50:16.880> called<00:50:17.119> spike<00:50:17.440> timing" + }, + { + "start": 3017.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "something called spike timing" + }, + { + "start": 3017.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "something called spike timing independent<00:50:18.160> plasticity.<00:50:19.280> two<00:50:19.520> neurons<00:50:19.920> fire" + }, + { + "start": 3020.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "independent plasticity. two neurons fire" + }, + { + "start": 3020.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "independent plasticity. two neurons fire within<00:50:20.480> a<00:50:20.640> short<00:50:20.800> temporal<00:50:21.200> window<00:50:21.440> of<00:50:21.599> one" + }, + { + "start": 3021.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "within a short temporal window of one" + }, + { + "start": 3021.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "within a short temporal window of one another<00:50:22.880> then<00:50:23.119> they<00:50:23.599> increase<00:50:23.839> their" + }, + { + "start": 3024.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "another then they increase their" + }, + { + "start": 3024.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "another then they increase their connectivity<00:50:24.960> their<00:50:25.200> syn<00:50:25.440> their<00:50:25.680> synapses" + }, + { + "start": 3026.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connectivity their syn their synapses" + }, + { + "start": 3026.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connectivity their syn their synapses get<00:50:26.400> stronger<00:50:27.280> well<00:50:27.920> traveling<00:50:28.319> waves<00:50:28.559> are<00:50:28.720> a" + }, + { + "start": 3028.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "get stronger well traveling waves are a" + }, + { + "start": 3028.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "get stronger well traveling waves are a great<00:50:28.960> way<00:50:29.040> to<00:50:29.200> do<00:50:29.280> that<00:50:29.440> because<00:50:29.599> what<00:50:29.760> the" + }, + { + "start": 3029.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "great way to do that because what the" + }, + { + "start": 3029.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "great way to do that because what the tra<00:50:30.160> when<00:50:30.160> many<00:50:30.400> of<00:50:30.400> these<00:50:30.640> traveling<00:50:30.960> waves" + }, + { + "start": 3031.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "tra when many of these traveling waves" + }, + { + "start": 3031.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "tra when many of these traveling waves do<00:50:31.599> as<00:50:31.760> I<00:50:32.160> mentioned<00:50:32.480> is<00:50:32.640> a<00:50:32.800> lot<00:50:32.880> of<00:50:32.960> them<00:50:33.119> are" + }, + { + "start": 3033.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "do as I mentioned is a lot of them are" + }, + { + "start": 3033.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "do as I mentioned is a lot of them are rotating<00:50:33.760> in<00:50:33.920> fact<00:50:34.400> the<00:50:34.640> bulk<00:50:34.880> of<00:50:34.960> the<00:50:35.040> waves" + }, + { + "start": 3035.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "rotating in fact the bulk of the waves" + }, + { + "start": 3035.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "rotating in fact the bulk of the waves some<00:50:35.599> of<00:50:35.680> them<00:50:36.000> move<00:50:36.240> across<00:50:36.559> your<00:50:36.720> cortex<00:50:37.119> but" + }, + { + "start": 3037.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "some of them move across your cortex but" + }, + { + "start": 3037.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "some of them move across your cortex but a<00:50:37.359> lot<00:50:37.440> of<00:50:37.520> them<00:50:37.760> rotate<00:50:38.720> and<00:50:38.960> rotating<00:50:39.359> waves" + }, + { + "start": 3039.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a lot of them rotate and rotating waves" + }, + { + "start": 3039.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a lot of them rotate and rotating waves are<00:50:39.760> a<00:50:39.920> great<00:50:40.079> way<00:50:40.240> to<00:50:40.400> induce<00:50:40.800> synaptic" + }, + { + "start": 3041.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are a great way to induce synaptic" + }, + { + "start": 3041.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are a great way to induce synaptic plasticity<00:50:42.079> because<00:50:42.319> you<00:50:42.559> can<00:50:42.720> move<00:50:42.960> the" + }, + { + "start": 3043.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "plasticity because you can move the" + }, + { + "start": 3043.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "plasticity because you can move the center<00:50:43.440> of<00:50:43.599> the<00:50:43.760> rotation<00:50:44.880> around<00:50:45.280> the" + }, + { + "start": 3045.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "center of the rotation around the" + }, + { + "start": 3045.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "center of the rotation around the surface<00:50:46.079> of<00:50:46.240> cortex<00:50:46.960> and<00:50:47.280> change<00:50:47.599> that" + }, + { + "start": 3048.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "surface of cortex and change that" + }, + { + "start": 3048.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "surface of cortex and change that precise" + }, + { + "start": 3049.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "precise" + }, + { + "start": 3049.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "precise timing<00:50:50.000> window<00:50:50.400> for<00:50:51.040> spike<00:50:51.359> time<00:50:51.599> dependent" + }, + { + "start": 3051.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "timing window for spike time dependent" + }, + { + "start": 3051.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "timing window for spike time dependent plasticity.<00:50:52.720> You<00:50:52.960> can<00:50:53.200> move<00:50:53.359> that<00:50:53.599> window" + }, + { + "start": 3053.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "plasticity. You can move that window" + }, + { + "start": 3053.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "plasticity. You can move that window around<00:50:54.079> in<00:50:54.240> a<00:50:54.400> parametric<00:50:54.960> fashion.<00:50:56.000> Did<00:50:56.240> that" + }, + { + "start": 3056.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "around in a parametric fashion. Did that" + }, + { + "start": 3056.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "around in a parametric fashion. Did that answer<00:50:56.640> your<00:50:56.880> question?<00:50:57.119> I'm<00:50:57.280> not<00:50:57.359> a" + }, + { + "start": 3057.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "answer your question? I'm not a" + }, + { + "start": 3057.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "answer your question? I'm not a physicist." + }, + { + "start": 3058.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "physicist." + }, + { + "start": 3058.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "physicist. >> Yeah,<00:50:58.480> that<00:50:58.800> this<00:50:58.960> is<00:50:59.119> very<00:50:59.359> very<00:50:59.680> very" + }, + { + "start": 3059.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yeah, that this is very very very" + }, + { + "start": 3060.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yeah, that this is very very very interesting.<00:51:01.040> Uh<00:51:01.920> may<00:51:02.079> I<00:51:02.240> ask<00:51:02.559> another" + }, + { + "start": 3062.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "interesting. Uh may I ask another" + }, + { + "start": 3062.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "interesting. Uh may I ask another question<00:51:03.359> also<00:51:03.599> inspired<00:51:04.079> by<00:51:04.319> physics.<00:51:05.680> So" + }, + { + "start": 3066.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "question also inspired by physics. So" + }, + { + "start": 3066.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "question also inspired by physics. So yeah.<00:51:06.720> So,<00:51:07.200> so<00:51:07.520> in<00:51:08.319> in<00:51:08.720> condes<00:51:09.280> metaphysics<00:51:10.400> uh" + }, + { + "start": 3071.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "yeah. So, so in in condes metaphysics uh" + }, + { + "start": 3071.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "yeah. So, so in in condes metaphysics uh people<00:51:11.520> studying<00:51:12.160> uh<00:51:12.319> studying<00:51:13.280> uh<00:51:14.640> large" + }, + { + "start": 3075.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "people studying uh studying uh large" + }, + { + "start": 3075.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "people studying uh studying uh large scale<00:51:15.760> uh<00:51:16.000> oscillation<00:51:16.559> in<00:51:16.800> a<00:51:17.119> system<00:51:17.760> they" + }, + { + "start": 3078.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "scale uh oscillation in a system they" + }, + { + "start": 3078.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "scale uh oscillation in a system they call<00:51:18.160> it<00:51:18.480> phon<00:51:19.440> uh<00:51:19.520> it's<00:51:19.839> a<00:51:20.480> imaginary" + }, + { + "start": 3081.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "call it phon uh it's a imaginary" + }, + { + "start": 3081.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "call it phon uh it's a imaginary particle<00:51:21.920> that<00:51:22.640> uh<00:51:23.520> uh<00:51:23.920> basically<00:51:25.040> when<00:51:25.359> you" + }, + { + "start": 3085.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "particle that uh uh basically when you" + }, + { + "start": 3085.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "particle that uh uh basically when you have<00:51:25.680> a<00:51:26.000> global<00:51:26.960> oscillation<00:51:27.760> global<00:51:28.160> wave" + }, + { + "start": 3088.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have a global oscillation global wave" + }, + { + "start": 3088.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have a global oscillation global wave you<00:51:29.119> can<00:51:29.440> transform<00:51:30.000> it<00:51:30.400> into<00:51:31.119> wave<00:51:31.599> spa<00:51:32.160> uh" + }, + { + "start": 3092.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you can transform it into wave spa uh" + }, + { + "start": 3092.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you can transform it into wave spa uh into<00:51:32.640> frequency<00:51:33.680> space<00:51:34.079> and<00:51:34.319> it<00:51:34.559> become<00:51:34.960> a" + }, + { + "start": 3095.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "into frequency space and it become a" + }, + { + "start": 3095.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "into frequency space and it become a particle<00:51:36.079> I<00:51:36.319> wondering<00:51:36.880> if<00:51:37.359> neuroscience<00:51:38.000> is" + }, + { + "start": 3098.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "particle I wondering if neuroscience is" + }, + { + "start": 3098.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "particle I wondering if neuroscience is doing<00:51:38.400> the<00:51:38.640> same<00:51:38.800> thing." + }, + { + "start": 3100.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "doing the same thing." + }, + { + "start": 3100.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "doing the same thing. >> Well,<00:51:41.119> uh<00:51:41.520> yes<00:51:41.760> and<00:51:42.000> no.<00:51:42.240> There<00:51:42.480> are<00:51:42.640> like<00:51:42.960> uh" + }, + { + "start": 3103.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Well, uh yes and no. There are like uh" + }, + { + "start": 3103.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Well, uh yes and no. There are like uh theories<00:51:43.680> of<00:51:44.000> uh<00:51:44.240> consciousness<00:51:44.800> that" + }, + { + "start": 3104.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "theories of uh consciousness that" + }, + { + "start": 3104.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "theories of uh consciousness that include<00:51:45.280> like<00:51:45.760> um<00:51:45.920> quantum<00:51:46.400> physics<00:51:46.960> and<00:51:47.119> and" + }, + { + "start": 3107.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "include like um quantum physics and and" + }, + { + "start": 3107.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "include like um quantum physics and and uh<00:51:48.000> and<00:51:48.720> um<00:51:49.200> I<00:51:49.440> wouldn't<00:51:49.680> say<00:51:49.760> it's<00:51:49.920> the" + }, + { + "start": 3110.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh and um I wouldn't say it's the" + }, + { + "start": 3110.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh and um I wouldn't say it's the mainstream<00:51:50.400> of<00:51:50.559> neuroscience.<00:51:51.280> Right<00:51:51.440> now" + }, + { + "start": 3111.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mainstream of neuroscience. Right now" + }, + { + "start": 3111.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mainstream of neuroscience. Right now we're<00:51:52.960> me<00:51:53.200> and<00:51:53.520> uh<00:51:53.839> uh<00:51:54.000> several<00:51:54.400> others<00:51:54.720> are" + }, + { + "start": 3114.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we're me and uh uh several others are" + }, + { + "start": 3114.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we're me and uh uh several others are are<00:51:55.200> are<00:51:55.520> trying<00:51:55.760> to<00:51:56.240> you<00:51:56.400> know<00:51:56.640> shift<00:51:56.960> the" + }, + { + "start": 3117.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are are trying to you know shift the" + }, + { + "start": 3117.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are are trying to you know shift the focus<00:51:58.000> of<00:51:58.160> neuroscience.<00:51:58.880> not<00:51:59.200> shift<00:51:59.520> but<00:52:00.960> um" + }, + { + "start": 3121.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "focus of neuroscience. not shift but um" + }, + { + "start": 3121.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "focus of neuroscience. not shift but um um<00:52:02.160> draw<00:52:02.480> more<00:52:02.640> attention<00:52:02.960> to<00:52:03.200> these<00:52:03.599> um" + }, + { + "start": 3124.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um draw more attention to these um" + }, + { + "start": 3124.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um draw more attention to these um non-connectionist<00:52:05.040> mechanisms<00:52:05.680> that<00:52:06.000> that" + }, + { + "start": 3126.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "non-connectionist mechanisms that that" + }, + { + "start": 3126.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "non-connectionist mechanisms that that are<00:52:06.640> uh<00:52:06.720> that<00:52:06.960> we<00:52:07.119> think<00:52:07.359> play<00:52:07.520> a<00:52:07.680> major<00:52:08.000> role" + }, + { + "start": 3128.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are uh that we think play a major role" + }, + { + "start": 3128.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are uh that we think play a major role in<00:52:08.559> uh<00:52:08.880> brain<00:52:09.200> function.<00:52:09.520> And<00:52:09.680> back<00:52:09.839> when<00:52:10.000> I" + }, + { + "start": 3130.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in uh brain function. And back when I" + }, + { + "start": 3130.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in uh brain function. And back when I started<00:52:10.319> selling<00:52:10.559> this<00:52:10.800> 20<00:52:11.040> years<00:52:11.200> ago," + }, + { + "start": 3131.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "started selling this 20 years ago," + }, + { + "start": 3131.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "started selling this 20 years ago, people<00:52:12.480> people<00:52:13.280> a<00:52:13.440> lot<00:52:13.520> of<00:52:13.599> people<00:52:13.839> thought<00:52:14.000> it" + }, + { + "start": 3134.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "people people a lot of people thought it" + }, + { + "start": 3134.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "people people a lot of people thought it was<00:52:14.400> uh<00:52:14.559> you<00:52:14.720> know<00:52:15.280> um<00:52:15.440> why<00:52:15.680> would<00:52:15.839> you<00:52:16.000> want<00:52:16.079> to" + }, + { + "start": 3136.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "was uh you know um why would you want to" + }, + { + "start": 3136.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "was uh you know um why would you want to study<00:52:16.720> waves<00:52:16.960> when<00:52:17.200> you<00:52:17.280> could<00:52:17.440> study" + }, + { + "start": 3137.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "study waves when you could study" + }, + { + "start": 3137.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "study waves when you could study neurons?<00:52:18.559> And<00:52:18.720> now<00:52:18.960> people<00:52:19.200> are<00:52:19.520> uh<00:52:19.680> you<00:52:19.839> know" + }, + { + "start": 3140.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons? And now people are uh you know" + }, + { + "start": 3140.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neurons? And now people are uh you know generally<00:52:20.559> people<00:52:20.800> are<00:52:20.960> coming<00:52:21.119> around<00:52:21.440> to" + }, + { + "start": 3141.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "generally people are coming around to" + }, + { + "start": 3141.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "generally people are coming around to it.<00:52:21.920> But<00:52:22.160> we<00:52:22.400> haven't<00:52:22.559> gotten<00:52:22.880> to<00:52:22.960> the<00:52:23.359> uh<00:52:23.680> the" + }, + { + "start": 3144.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it. But we haven't gotten to the uh the" + }, + { + "start": 3144.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it. But we haven't gotten to the uh the um<00:52:24.319> you<00:52:24.480> know<00:52:24.800> the<00:52:25.119> quantum<00:52:25.599> collapse<00:52:26.079> kind<00:52:26.240> of" + }, + { + "start": 3146.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um you know the quantum collapse kind of" + }, + { + "start": 3146.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um you know the quantum collapse kind of thing<00:52:26.480> that<00:52:26.640> although<00:52:26.960> there<00:52:27.119> is<00:52:27.200> a<00:52:27.359> quantum" + }, + { + "start": 3147.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thing that although there is a quantum" + }, + { + "start": 3147.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "thing that although there is a quantum theory<00:52:28.000> of<00:52:28.079> consciousness<00:52:28.640> involving" + }, + { + "start": 3149.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "theory of consciousness involving" + }, + { + "start": 3149.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "theory of consciousness involving microtubules<00:52:29.839> you<00:52:30.000> might<00:52:30.160> want<00:52:30.480> might<00:52:30.800> want" + }, + { + "start": 3150.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "microtubules you might want might want" + }, + { + "start": 3150.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "microtubules you might want might want to<00:52:31.119> check<00:52:31.280> out." + }, + { + "start": 3152.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to check out." + }, + { + "start": 3152.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to check out. >> Yeah.<00:52:32.880> Thank<00:52:33.040> you." + }, + { + "start": 3153.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yeah. Thank you." + }, + { + "start": 3153.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yeah. Thank you. >> Sure." + }, + { + "start": 3156.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Um<00:52:37.520> would<00:52:37.760> you<00:52:37.920> mind<00:52:38.640> calling<00:52:38.960> on<00:52:39.200> people?" + }, + { + "start": 3160.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Um would you mind calling on people?" + }, + { + "start": 3160.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Um would you mind calling on people? >> Yeah,<00:52:40.559> Chris." + }, + { + "start": 3163.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yeah, Chris." + }, + { + "start": 3163.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yeah, Chris. >> Uh<00:52:43.599> yeah,<00:52:44.079> thank<00:52:44.240> you.<00:52:44.559> This<00:52:44.720> was<00:52:44.960> this<00:52:45.200> was<00:52:45.280> a" + }, + { + "start": 3165.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Uh yeah, thank you. This was this was a" + }, + { + "start": 3165.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Uh yeah, thank you. This was this was a very<00:52:45.680> nice<00:52:45.920> talk.<00:52:46.800> I<00:52:47.119> appreciate<00:52:47.440> it.<00:52:48.240> Um" + }, + { + "start": 3169.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "very nice talk. I appreciate it. Um" + }, + { + "start": 3170.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "very nice talk. I appreciate it. Um on<00:52:50.240> this<00:52:50.880> topic<00:52:51.280> of" + }, + { + "start": 3173.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "on this topic of" + }, + { + "start": 3173.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "on this topic of quantum<00:52:53.920> effects," + }, + { + "start": 3177.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "how<00:52:58.000> reproducible" + }, + { + "start": 3180.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "how reproducible" + }, + { + "start": 3180.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "how reproducible are<00:53:01.040> the<00:53:01.440> context<00:53:02.160> changes" + }, + { + "start": 3183.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are the context changes" + }, + { + "start": 3183.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are the context changes that<00:53:04.480> you<00:53:04.880> see<00:53:06.000> with<00:53:06.960> um<00:53:08.079> sort<00:53:08.319> of<00:53:08.559> simple" + }, + { + "start": 3189.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that you see with um sort of simple" + }, + { + "start": 3189.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that you see with um sort of simple experimentally<00:53:10.000> controllable<00:53:10.720> behaviors?" + }, + { + "start": 3192.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "experimentally controllable behaviors?" + }, + { + "start": 3192.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "experimentally controllable behaviors? Uh,<00:53:13.040> can<00:53:13.359> you<00:53:13.599> control<00:53:14.000> an<00:53:14.319> experiment<00:53:14.960> well" + }, + { + "start": 3195.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Uh, can you control an experiment well" + }, + { + "start": 3195.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Uh, can you control an experiment well enough<00:53:15.520> to<00:53:15.760> get<00:53:17.119> the<00:53:17.520> same<00:53:18.160> wave<00:53:18.559> patterns" + }, + { + "start": 3199.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "enough to get the same wave patterns" + }, + { + "start": 3199.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "enough to get the same wave patterns moving<00:53:19.599> in<00:53:19.839> the<00:53:20.160> same<00:53:20.559> way<00:53:21.520> across<00:53:22.079> a<00:53:22.400> single" + }, + { + "start": 3202.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "moving in the same way across a single" + }, + { + "start": 3202.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "moving in the same way across a single brain?" + }, + { + "start": 3203.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain?" + }, + { + "start": 3203.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain? >> You<00:53:24.160> absolutely<00:53:24.720> can.<00:53:25.040> Yeah.<00:53:25.200> I<00:53:25.359> mean,<00:53:25.520> I" + }, + { + "start": 3205.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> You absolutely can. Yeah. I mean, I" + }, + { + "start": 3205.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> You absolutely can. Yeah. I mean, I wouldn't<00:53:25.920> be<00:53:26.000> able<00:53:26.079> to<00:53:26.160> show<00:53:26.240> you<00:53:26.400> this<00:53:26.640> effect" + }, + { + "start": 3206.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wouldn't be able to show you this effect" + }, + { + "start": 3206.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wouldn't be able to show you this effect if<00:53:27.040> that<00:53:27.119> wasn't<00:53:27.359> true<00:53:27.599> because<00:53:28.000> all<00:53:28.319> you" + }, + { + "start": 3208.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "if that wasn't true because all you" + }, + { + "start": 3208.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "if that wasn't true because all you know,<00:53:28.559> all<00:53:28.720> the<00:53:29.040> experimental<00:53:29.520> work<00:53:29.680> we<00:53:29.839> do," + }, + { + "start": 3209.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know, all the experimental work we do," + }, + { + "start": 3210.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "know, all the experimental work we do, it<00:53:30.160> depends<00:53:30.319> on<00:53:30.559> reproducibility.<00:53:31.359> We<00:53:31.440> have" + }, + { + "start": 3211.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it depends on reproducibility. We have" + }, + { + "start": 3211.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it depends on reproducibility. We have to<00:53:31.680> see<00:53:31.839> the<00:53:32.079> same<00:53:32.319> thing<00:53:32.960> across<00:53:33.520> multiple" + }, + { + "start": 3213.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to see the same thing across multiple" + }, + { + "start": 3214.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "to see the same thing across multiple renditions,<00:53:34.640> multiple<00:53:35.040> trials<00:53:35.440> of<00:53:35.680> the<00:53:35.839> same" + }, + { + "start": 3216.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "renditions, multiple trials of the same" + }, + { + "start": 3216.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "renditions, multiple trials of the same context.<00:53:36.880> Otherwise,<00:53:37.280> we<00:53:37.520> wouldn't<00:53:38.000> uh<00:53:38.240> even" + }, + { + "start": 3218.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context. Otherwise, we wouldn't uh even" + }, + { + "start": 3218.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context. Otherwise, we wouldn't uh even even<00:53:38.720> see<00:53:38.880> these<00:53:39.119> effects.<00:53:39.440> But<00:53:39.599> you<00:53:39.760> can<00:53:39.920> in" + }, + { + "start": 3220.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "even see these effects. But you can in" + }, + { + "start": 3220.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "even see these effects. But you can in fact<00:53:40.240> do<00:53:40.400> that.<00:53:40.640> So<00:53:40.800> you<00:53:41.040> have<00:53:41.119> the<00:53:41.359> same" + }, + { + "start": 3221.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fact do that. So you have the same" + }, + { + "start": 3221.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fact do that. So you have the same behavioral<00:53:42.559> context.<00:53:43.280> You<00:53:43.440> see<00:53:43.599> the<00:53:43.920> same" + }, + { + "start": 3224.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "behavioral context. You see the same" + }, + { + "start": 3224.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "behavioral context. You see the same wave<00:53:44.400> pattern<00:53:45.040> every<00:53:45.359> time<00:53:45.520> or<00:53:45.760> a<00:53:45.920> similar" + }, + { + "start": 3226.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave pattern every time or a similar" + }, + { + "start": 3226.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave pattern every time or a similar wave<00:53:46.480> pattern<00:53:46.800> every<00:53:47.040> time.<00:53:47.920> That<00:53:48.160> that<00:53:49.040> it" + }, + { + "start": 3229.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave pattern every time. That that it" + }, + { + "start": 3229.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "wave pattern every time. That that it really<00:53:49.520> would<00:53:49.760> be<00:53:49.920> it<00:53:50.160> really<00:53:50.319> couldn't<00:53:50.559> work" + }, + { + "start": 3230.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "really would be it really couldn't work" + }, + { + "start": 3230.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "really would be it really couldn't work any<00:53:50.960> other<00:53:51.119> way<00:53:51.359> because<00:53:51.520> you<00:53:51.760> need<00:53:51.920> this" + }, + { + "start": 3232.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "any other way because you need this" + }, + { + "start": 3232.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "any other way because you need this negative<00:53:53.359> cortical<00:53:53.839> space<00:53:54.079> negative<00:53:54.880> um" + }, + { + "start": 3235.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "negative cortical space negative um" + }, + { + "start": 3235.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "negative cortical space negative um space<00:53:55.359> to<00:53:55.520> be<00:53:55.599> a<00:53:55.760> computational<00:53:56.319> dimension." + }, + { + "start": 3236.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "space to be a computational dimension." + }, + { + "start": 3236.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "space to be a computational dimension. You<00:53:57.040> got<00:53:57.119> to<00:53:57.280> have<00:53:57.440> cons<00:53:57.760> consistency<00:53:58.319> and<00:53:58.559> we" + }, + { + "start": 3238.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "You got to have cons consistency and we" + }, + { + "start": 3238.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "You got to have cons consistency and we do<00:53:58.880> see<00:53:59.040> that<00:53:59.280> consistency<00:54:00.319> that<00:54:00.480> you<00:54:00.640> see<00:54:00.800> it" + }, + { + "start": 3241.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "do see that consistency that you see it" + }, + { + "start": 3241.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "do see that consistency that you see it uh<00:54:01.359> there's<00:54:01.680> there's<00:54:02.000> variability<00:54:02.640> across" + }, + { + "start": 3243.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh there's there's variability across" + }, + { + "start": 3243.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh there's there's variability across context<00:54:03.520> but<00:54:03.760> consistency<00:54:04.240> within<00:54:04.480> a" + }, + { + "start": 3244.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context but consistency within a" + }, + { + "start": 3244.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context but consistency within a context." + }, + { + "start": 3245.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context." + }, + { + "start": 3245.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "context. >> Okay<00:54:06.160> great.<00:54:06.800> Um,<00:54:07.440> so<00:54:07.839> whenever<00:54:08.800> um<00:54:09.119> I<00:54:09.359> am<00:54:09.760> a<00:54:10.319> at" + }, + { + "start": 3250.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Okay great. Um, so whenever um I am a at" + }, + { + "start": 3250.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Okay great. Um, so whenever um I am a at least<00:54:10.640> a<00:54:10.800> part-time<00:54:11.280> physicist," + }, + { + "start": 3253.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "least a part-time physicist," + }, + { + "start": 3253.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "least a part-time physicist, whenever<00:54:13.520> a<00:54:13.680> physicist<00:54:14.240> hears<00:54:14.640> context,<00:54:15.680> the" + }, + { + "start": 3255.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "whenever a physicist hears context, the" + }, + { + "start": 3255.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "whenever a physicist hears context, the natural<00:54:16.480> question<00:54:17.119> is,<00:54:18.079> is<00:54:18.319> the<00:54:18.559> context" + }, + { + "start": 3259.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "natural question is, is the context" + }, + { + "start": 3259.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "natural question is, is the context effect<00:54:19.599> causal<00:54:20.079> or<00:54:20.319> non-causal?" + }, + { + "start": 3261.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "effect causal or non-causal?" + }, + { + "start": 3262.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "effect causal or non-causal? And<00:54:23.440> um<00:54:24.319> they're<00:54:24.640> nice<00:54:24.960> statistical<00:54:25.599> tests" + }, + { + "start": 3266.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And um they're nice statistical tests" + }, + { + "start": 3266.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And um they're nice statistical tests for<00:54:26.880> determining<00:54:27.440> whether<00:54:27.760> the<00:54:27.920> context" + }, + { + "start": 3268.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "for determining whether the context" + }, + { + "start": 3268.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "for determining whether the context effect<00:54:28.720> is<00:54:29.040> causal<00:54:29.440> or<00:54:29.599> non-causal.<00:54:30.319> And" + }, + { + "start": 3270.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "effect is causal or non-causal. And" + }, + { + "start": 3270.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "effect is causal or non-causal. And roughly<00:54:30.960> speaking,<00:54:32.240> if<00:54:32.480> you<00:54:32.640> can" + }, + { + "start": 3272.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "roughly speaking, if you can" + }, + { + "start": 3272.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "roughly speaking, if you can reproducibly<00:54:33.839> get<00:54:34.160> context<00:54:34.640> to<00:54:34.960> interfere," + }, + { + "start": 3276.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "reproducibly get context to interfere," + }, + { + "start": 3276.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "reproducibly get context to interfere, you<00:54:36.800> can<00:54:36.960> see<00:54:37.119> non-causal<00:54:38.240> context<00:54:38.880> effects" + }, + { + "start": 3279.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you can see non-causal context effects" + }, + { + "start": 3279.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you can see non-causal context effects that<00:54:39.920> express" + }, + { + "start": 3281.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that express" + }, + { + "start": 3281.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that express by<00:54:42.640> uh<00:54:42.960> statistics" + }, + { + "start": 3284.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "by uh statistics" + }, + { + "start": 3284.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "by uh statistics of<00:54:44.960> some<00:54:45.280> other<00:54:45.599> observable<00:54:46.400> or<00:54:46.720> observables" + }, + { + "start": 3287.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of some other observable or observables" + }, + { + "start": 3287.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of some other observable or observables that<00:54:47.680> overlap<00:54:48.400> between<00:54:48.960> context" + }, + { + "start": 3290.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that overlap between context" + }, + { + "start": 3290.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that overlap between context >> violating<00:54:50.720> bells<00:54:51.040> in<00:54:51.200> equality.<00:54:51.920> So<00:54:52.079> you<00:54:52.240> can" + }, + { + "start": 3292.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> violating bells in equality. So you can" + }, + { + "start": 3292.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> violating bells in equality. So you can get<00:54:52.800> very<00:54:53.359> sensitive<00:54:54.000> tests<00:54:55.440> of" + }, + { + "start": 3297.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "get very sensitive tests of" + }, + { + "start": 3297.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "get very sensitive tests of >> u<00:54:57.359> the<00:54:57.680> non<00:54:58.880> causality<00:54:59.599> of<00:54:59.839> the<00:55:00.079> context" + }, + { + "start": 3300.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> u the non causality of the context" + }, + { + "start": 3300.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> u the non causality of the context effects<00:55:01.680> and<00:55:01.839> I<00:55:02.000> just<00:55:02.240> wonder<00:55:02.559> if<00:55:02.880> your<00:55:03.280> data" + }, + { + "start": 3304.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "effects and I just wonder if your data" + }, + { + "start": 3304.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "effects and I just wonder if your data are<00:55:04.640> immunable<00:55:05.359> to<00:55:05.680> running<00:55:06.079> that<00:55:06.400> kind<00:55:06.640> of" + }, + { + "start": 3306.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are immunable to running that kind of" + }, + { + "start": 3306.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are immunable to running that kind of statistical<00:55:07.599> test." + }, + { + "start": 3308.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "statistical test." + }, + { + "start": 3308.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "statistical test. >> Um<00:55:08.880> yes<00:55:09.200> we<00:55:09.440> in<00:55:09.599> fact<00:55:09.760> do<00:55:09.920> run<00:55:10.000> those" + }, + { + "start": 3310.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Um yes we in fact do run those" + }, + { + "start": 3310.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Um yes we in fact do run those contestical<00:55:10.720> tests<00:55:10.880> and<00:55:11.040> we<00:55:11.200> show<00:55:11.280> the" + }, + { + "start": 3311.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "contestical tests and we show the" + }, + { + "start": 3311.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "contestical tests and we show the causality<00:55:12.079> going<00:55:12.319> from<00:55:12.559> the<00:55:12.880> brain<00:55:13.119> waves" + }, + { + "start": 3313.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "causality going from the brain waves" + }, + { + "start": 3313.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "causality going from the brain waves down<00:55:13.599> to<00:55:13.760> the<00:55:13.920> spiking<00:55:14.319> neurons.<00:55:14.640> So<00:55:14.880> we've" + }, + { + "start": 3315.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "down to the spiking neurons. So we've" + }, + { + "start": 3315.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "down to the spiking neurons. So we've done<00:55:15.280> those<00:55:15.520> analyses<00:55:16.240> but<00:55:16.480> also<00:55:16.800> you<00:55:16.960> can<00:55:17.040> do" + }, + { + "start": 3317.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "done those analyses but also you can do" + }, + { + "start": 3317.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "done those analyses but also you can do it<00:55:17.359> experimentally<00:55:18.240> too.<00:55:18.559> So<00:55:18.800> not<00:55:18.960> not<00:55:19.200> work" + }, + { + "start": 3319.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it experimentally too. So not not work" + }, + { + "start": 3319.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it experimentally too. So not not work that<00:55:19.520> I've<00:55:19.680> done<00:55:19.920> but<00:55:20.079> work<00:55:20.240> other<00:55:20.480> people" + }, + { + "start": 3320.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that I've done but work other people" + }, + { + "start": 3320.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that I've done but work other people have<00:55:20.880> done.<00:55:21.200> For<00:55:21.280> example,<00:55:21.680> you<00:55:21.839> do<00:55:22.000> things" + }, + { + "start": 3322.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have done. For example, you do things" + }, + { + "start": 3322.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "have done. For example, you do things like<00:55:22.400> you<00:55:22.559> record<00:55:22.880> from<00:55:23.119> inside<00:55:23.359> the<00:55:23.599> brain" + }, + { + "start": 3324.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like you record from inside the brain" + }, + { + "start": 3324.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "like you record from inside the brain and<00:55:24.400> from<00:55:24.640> outside<00:55:24.960> the<00:55:25.200> brain,<00:55:25.440> you<00:55:25.599> create<00:55:25.760> a" + }, + { + "start": 3325.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and from outside the brain, you create a" + }, + { + "start": 3325.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and from outside the brain, you create a fluctuating<00:55:26.480> electric<00:55:26.960> field,<00:55:28.400> one<00:55:28.640> that<00:55:28.800> has" + }, + { + "start": 3328.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fluctuating electric field, one that has" + }, + { + "start": 3328.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fluctuating electric field, one that has the<00:55:29.200> same<00:55:29.440> strength<00:55:29.760> and<00:55:30.000> same<00:55:30.160> frequency" + }, + { + "start": 3330.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the same strength and same frequency" + }, + { + "start": 3330.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the same strength and same frequency range<00:55:30.880> as<00:55:31.680> as<00:55:32.079> happens<00:55:32.400> inside<00:55:32.720> the<00:55:32.880> brain." + }, + { + "start": 3333.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "range as as happens inside the brain." + }, + { + "start": 3333.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "range as as happens inside the brain. And<00:55:33.599> when<00:55:33.680> you<00:55:33.839> record<00:55:34.079> inside<00:55:34.319> the<00:55:34.480> brain," + }, + { + "start": 3334.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And when you record inside the brain," + }, + { + "start": 3334.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "And when you record inside the brain, what<00:55:34.880> you<00:55:35.040> find<00:55:35.440> is<00:55:35.760> all<00:55:35.920> the<00:55:36.079> neurons<00:55:36.480> are<00:55:36.640> are" + }, + { + "start": 3336.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what you find is all the neurons are are" + }, + { + "start": 3336.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what you find is all the neurons are are are<00:55:37.359> phase<00:55:37.680> locked<00:55:37.920> to<00:55:38.079> to<00:55:38.319> that<00:55:38.480> fluctuating" + }, + { + "start": 3339.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are phase locked to to that fluctuating" + }, + { + "start": 3339.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are phase locked to to that fluctuating electric<00:55:39.440> field.<00:55:40.079> So<00:55:40.240> that's<00:55:40.400> just<00:55:40.559> one" + }, + { + "start": 3340.79, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric field. So that's just one" + }, + { + "start": 3340.8, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric field. So that's just one example<00:55:41.040> of<00:55:41.359> many<00:55:41.599> experiments<00:55:42.079> that<00:55:42.400> that's" + }, + { + "start": 3342.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "example of many experiments that that's" + }, + { + "start": 3342.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "example of many experiments that that's a<00:55:42.800> causal<00:55:43.200> manipulation<00:55:43.920> experimentally<00:55:44.720> but" + }, + { + "start": 3344.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a causal manipulation experimentally but" + }, + { + "start": 3344.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a causal manipulation experimentally but you<00:55:45.040> can<00:55:45.200> also<00:55:45.359> do<00:55:45.520> the<00:55:46.079> math<00:55:46.400> and<00:55:46.640> show" + }, + { + "start": 3346.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you can also do the math and show" + }, + { + "start": 3346.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you can also do the math and show causalities<00:55:48.000> moving<00:55:48.240> in<00:55:48.400> in<00:55:48.720> the<00:55:49.280> electric" + }, + { + "start": 3349.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "causalities moving in in the electric" + }, + { + "start": 3349.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "causalities moving in in the electric field<00:55:49.920> the<00:55:50.160> spiking<00:55:50.799> direction<00:55:51.200> too<00:55:51.440> from<00:55:51.680> the" + }, + { + "start": 3351.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "field the spiking direction too from the" + }, + { + "start": 3351.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "field the spiking direction too from the existing<00:55:52.240> data." + }, + { + "start": 3353.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "existing data." + }, + { + "start": 3353.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "existing data. >> Do<00:55:53.520> you<00:55:53.680> do<00:55:53.920> you<00:55:54.400> have<00:55:54.559> any<00:55:54.880> data<00:55:55.119> that<00:55:55.440> display" + }, + { + "start": 3355.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Do you do you have any data that display" + }, + { + "start": 3356.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Do you do you have any data that display violations<00:55:56.640> of<00:55:56.799> Bell's<00:55:57.200> inequality?" + }, + { + "start": 3359.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "violations of Bell's inequality?" + }, + { + "start": 3359.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "violations of Bell's inequality? >> I'm<00:55:59.599> not<00:55:59.839> I'm<00:56:00.079> not<00:56:00.240> a<00:56:00.400> physicist<00:56:00.799> and<00:56:00.960> I'm<00:56:01.119> not" + }, + { + "start": 3361.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> I'm not I'm not a physicist and I'm not" + }, + { + "start": 3361.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> I'm not I'm not a physicist and I'm not a<00:56:01.359> quantum<00:56:01.680> physicist.<00:56:02.079> I<00:56:02.240> know<00:56:02.319> what<00:56:02.559> Bell" + }, + { + "start": 3363.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a quantum physicist. I know what Bell" + }, + { + "start": 3363.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a quantum physicist. I know what Bell I'm<00:56:04.160> a<00:56:04.480> I<00:56:04.720> know<00:56:04.799> what<00:56:04.960> Bell's<00:56:05.520> Bells<00:56:05.920> is<00:56:06.079> but" + }, + { + "start": 3366.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I'm a I know what Bell's Bells is but" + }, + { + "start": 3366.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I'm a I know what Bell's Bells is but I'm<00:56:06.400> not<00:56:06.559> a<00:56:07.200> expert<00:56:07.520> in<00:56:07.680> it.<00:56:07.839> I'm<00:56:08.079> I'm<00:56:08.240> a" + }, + { + "start": 3368.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I'm not a expert in it. I'm I'm a" + }, + { + "start": 3368.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I'm not a expert in it. I'm I'm a neuroscientist." + }, + { + "start": 3369.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuroscientist." + }, + { + "start": 3369.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuroscientist. >> Yeah,<00:56:09.839> it'<00:56:10.079> really<00:56:10.319> be<00:56:10.480> worth<00:56:11.200> looking<00:56:11.599> for" + }, + { + "start": 3371.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yeah, it' really be worth looking for" + }, + { + "start": 3371.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yeah, it' really be worth looking for that." + }, + { + "start": 3375.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Experimental<00:56:16.160> psychologists<00:56:17.440> have<00:56:17.760> been" + }, + { + "start": 3377.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Experimental psychologists have been" + }, + { + "start": 3377.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Experimental psychologists have been able<00:56:18.240> to<00:56:19.440> demonstrate" + }, + { + "start": 3380.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "able to demonstrate" + }, + { + "start": 3380.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "able to demonstrate um<00:56:22.400> very<00:56:22.799> good<00:56:23.200> statistics<00:56:23.760> for<00:56:24.000> violations" + }, + { + "start": 3384.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um very good statistics for violations" + }, + { + "start": 3384.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um very good statistics for violations of<00:56:24.720> Bell's<00:56:25.040> inequality<00:56:25.680> on<00:56:26.559> simple<00:56:27.599> sort<00:56:27.839> of" + }, + { + "start": 3388.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of Bell's inequality on simple sort of" + }, + { + "start": 3388.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "of Bell's inequality on simple sort of linguistic<00:56:29.040> trial<00:56:29.520> data.<00:56:30.880> Uh<00:56:31.200> so<00:56:31.359> it's<00:56:31.599> pretty" + }, + { + "start": 3391.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "linguistic trial data. Uh so it's pretty" + }, + { + "start": 3391.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "linguistic trial data. Uh so it's pretty clear<00:56:32.079> that<00:56:32.319> that" + }, + { + "start": 3394.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "clear that that" + }, + { + "start": 3394.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "clear that that brains<00:56:35.119> are<00:56:35.599> using" + }, + { + "start": 3397.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brains are using" + }, + { + "start": 3397.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brains are using uh<00:56:38.640> mutually<00:56:39.440> interfering<00:56:40.319> context<00:56:41.040> to<00:56:41.440> do" + }, + { + "start": 3401.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh mutually interfering context to do" + }, + { + "start": 3402.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh mutually interfering context to do computation" + }, + { + "start": 3403.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation" + }, + { + "start": 3403.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computation uh<00:56:44.480> even<00:56:44.720> in<00:56:45.200> civil<00:56:45.599> kind<00:56:45.839> of<00:56:46.000> language<00:56:46.480> games" + }, + { + "start": 3407.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh even in civil kind of language games" + }, + { + "start": 3407.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh even in civil kind of language games and<00:56:47.599> it<00:56:47.760> would<00:56:47.920> be<00:56:48.160> very<00:56:48.559> cool<00:56:48.799> if<00:56:49.040> you<00:56:49.200> could" + }, + { + "start": 3409.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and it would be very cool if you could" + }, + { + "start": 3409.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and it would be very cool if you could see<00:56:49.520> it<00:56:49.760> in<00:56:50.000> the<00:56:50.240> kind<00:56:50.400> of<00:56:50.640> data<00:56:50.880> that<00:56:51.119> you<00:56:51.359> can" + }, + { + "start": 3411.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "see it in the kind of data that you can" + }, + { + "start": 3411.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "see it in the kind of data that you can collect<00:56:52.079> and<00:56:52.319> it<00:56:52.640> sounds<00:56:52.799> like<00:56:52.960> it<00:56:53.119> would<00:56:53.200> be" + }, + { + "start": 3413.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "collect and it sounds like it would be" + }, + { + "start": 3413.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "collect and it sounds like it would be fairly<00:56:53.680> straightforward.<00:56:54.480> Well,<00:56:54.720> I'll<00:56:54.880> tell" + }, + { + "start": 3414.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fairly straightforward. Well, I'll tell" + }, + { + "start": 3414.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fairly straightforward. Well, I'll tell you<00:56:55.119> what.<00:56:55.599> My<00:56:55.839> my<00:56:56.240> lab<00:56:56.480> has<00:56:56.720> a<00:56:56.960> vast<00:56:57.359> library," + }, + { + "start": 3417.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you what. My my lab has a vast library," + }, + { + "start": 3417.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you what. My my lab has a vast library, a<00:56:58.000> large<00:56:58.240> library<00:56:58.640> of<00:56:58.799> of" + }, + { + "start": 3419.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a large library of of" + }, + { + "start": 3419.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a large library of of electrophysiological<00:56:59.920> data.<00:57:00.240> We've" + }, + { + "start": 3420.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrophysiological data. We've" + }, + { + "start": 3420.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrophysiological data. We've collected<00:57:00.960> spiking<00:57:01.440> neurons,<00:57:01.920> electric" + }, + { + "start": 3422.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "collected spiking neurons, electric" + }, + { + "start": 3422.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "collected spiking neurons, electric fields,<00:57:03.119> animals<00:57:03.520> doing<00:57:03.839> interesting" + }, + { + "start": 3424.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fields, animals doing interesting" + }, + { + "start": 3424.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "fields, animals doing interesting behaviors.<00:57:04.960> I<00:57:05.119> have<00:57:05.200> a<00:57:05.440> large<00:57:05.680> library<00:57:06.079> and<00:57:06.319> we" + }, + { + "start": 3426.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "behaviors. I have a large library and we" + }, + { + "start": 3426.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "behaviors. I have a large library and we love<00:57:06.640> to<00:57:06.799> share<00:57:07.119> data.<00:57:07.760> So,<00:57:08.000> if<00:57:08.400> um<00:57:08.720> you<00:57:08.960> have" + }, + { + "start": 3429.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "love to share data. So, if um you have" + }, + { + "start": 3429.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "love to share data. So, if um you have an<00:57:09.280> interest<00:57:09.520> in<00:57:09.760> in<00:57:10.160> taking<00:57:10.400> a<00:57:10.559> look,<00:57:10.960> any<00:57:11.119> of" + }, + { + "start": 3431.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "an interest in in taking a look, any of" + }, + { + "start": 3431.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "an interest in in taking a look, any of you,<00:57:11.599> anybody,<00:57:12.400> write<00:57:12.720> me<00:57:13.200> and<00:57:13.440> I'm<00:57:13.680> happy<00:57:13.839> to" + }, + { + "start": 3433.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you, anybody, write me and I'm happy to" + }, + { + "start": 3434.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you, anybody, write me and I'm happy to set<00:57:14.160> up<00:57:14.240> a<00:57:14.480> collaboration.<00:57:15.200> We're<00:57:15.440> happy<00:57:15.680> to" + }, + { + "start": 3435.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "set up a collaboration. We're happy to" + }, + { + "start": 3435.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "set up a collaboration. We're happy to share<00:57:16.079> our<00:57:16.319> data<00:57:16.480> with<00:57:16.640> you.<00:57:16.799> We<00:57:16.960> do<00:57:17.040> this<00:57:17.200> all" + }, + { + "start": 3437.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "share our data with you. We do this all" + }, + { + "start": 3437.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "share our data with you. We do this all the<00:57:17.599> time." + }, + { + "start": 3439.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the time." + }, + { + "start": 3439.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the time. >> Well,<00:57:19.920> thank<00:57:20.160> you." + }, + { + "start": 3441.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Well, thank you." + }, + { + "start": 3441.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Well, thank you. >> Thank<00:57:21.280> you." + }, + { + "start": 3446.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "send" + }, + { + "start": 3449.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "send" + }, + { + "start": 3449.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "send um<00:57:29.680> I<00:57:29.920> have<00:57:30.079> a<00:57:30.240> a<00:57:30.559> question<00:57:30.720> about<00:57:31.119> your" + }, + { + "start": 3451.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um I have a a question about your" + }, + { + "start": 3451.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um I have a a question about your stencil<00:57:32.400> idea.<00:57:32.880> So<00:57:33.040> the<00:57:33.200> idea<00:57:33.520> being<00:57:33.680> the" + }, + { + "start": 3453.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stencil idea. So the idea being the" + }, + { + "start": 3453.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stencil idea. So the idea being the electric<00:57:34.240> fields<00:57:34.559> as<00:57:34.720> a<00:57:34.960> act<00:57:35.119> as<00:57:35.280> a<00:57:35.520> gating" + }, + { + "start": 3455.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric fields as a act as a gating" + }, + { + "start": 3455.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electric fields as a act as a gating mechanism<00:57:37.200> uh<00:57:37.359> on<00:57:37.599> the<00:57:37.760> neurop<00:57:39.040> right<00:57:39.200> so<00:57:39.359> a" + }, + { + "start": 3459.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mechanism uh on the neurop right so a" + }, + { + "start": 3459.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mechanism uh on the neurop right so a couple<00:57:39.680> of<00:57:39.839> questions<00:57:40.079> on<00:57:40.319> that<00:57:41.119> uh<00:57:41.359> so<00:57:41.920> the" + }, + { + "start": 3461.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "couple of questions on that uh so the" + }, + { + "start": 3462.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "couple of questions on that uh so the idea<00:57:42.319> of<00:57:42.480> stencil<00:57:42.960> is<00:57:43.200> something<00:57:43.599> something" + }, + { + "start": 3463.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "idea of stencil is something something" + }, + { + "start": 3463.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "idea of stencil is something something that's<00:57:44.160> fixed<00:57:44.559> or<00:57:44.720> static<00:57:45.040> right<00:57:45.200> so<00:57:45.440> how<00:57:45.520> do" + }, + { + "start": 3465.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's fixed or static right so how do" + }, + { + "start": 3465.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's fixed or static right so how do we<00:57:45.839> imagine<00:57:46.480> traveling<00:57:46.960> waves<00:57:47.440> implementing" + }, + { + "start": 3467.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we imagine traveling waves implementing" + }, + { + "start": 3467.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we imagine traveling waves implementing that<00:57:48.240> stencil<00:57:49.200> the<00:57:49.440> second<00:57:49.680> question<00:57:49.920> is<00:57:50.319> who" + }, + { + "start": 3470.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that stencil the second question is who" + }, + { + "start": 3470.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that stencil the second question is who is<00:57:50.799> generating<00:57:51.200> that<00:57:51.680> uh<00:57:52.000> stencil<00:57:52.480> is<00:57:52.640> it<00:57:52.799> a" + }, + { + "start": 3472.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is generating that uh stencil is it a" + }, + { + "start": 3472.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is generating that uh stencil is it a different<00:57:53.200> set<00:57:53.440> of<00:57:53.680> neurons<00:57:54.799> than<00:57:54.960> the<00:57:55.200> one" + }, + { + "start": 3475.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different set of neurons than the one" + }, + { + "start": 3475.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "different set of neurons than the one that's<00:57:55.680> being<00:57:55.920> constrained" + }, + { + "start": 3477.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's being constrained" + }, + { + "start": 3477.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's being constrained >> so<00:57:58.000> here's<00:57:58.640> the<00:57:59.200> so<00:57:59.599> think<00:57:59.839> of<00:58:00.000> it<00:58:00.480> um<00:58:00.640> as<00:58:00.880> the" + }, + { + "start": 3481.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> so here's the so think of it um as the" + }, + { + "start": 3481.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> so here's the so think of it um as the as<00:58:01.359> the<00:58:01.520> stencil<00:58:01.839> is<00:58:02.000> not<00:58:02.480> static<00:58:02.799> stencils" + }, + { + "start": 3483.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "as the stencil is not static stencils" + }, + { + "start": 3483.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "as the stencil is not static stencils but<00:58:03.440> moving<00:58:03.680> stencils.<00:58:04.240> Okay,<00:58:04.400> that<00:58:04.559> that's" + }, + { + "start": 3484.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "but moving stencils. Okay, that that's" + }, + { + "start": 3484.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "but moving stencils. Okay, that that's what<00:58:04.880> the<00:58:04.960> treers<00:58:05.520> are.<00:58:05.680> They're<00:58:06.160> moving" + }, + { + "start": 3486.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what the treers are. They're moving" + }, + { + "start": 3486.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "what the treers are. They're moving stencils<00:58:06.960> moving<00:58:07.280> across<00:58:07.520> your<00:58:07.680> cortex.<00:58:08.559> Same" + }, + { + "start": 3488.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stencils moving across your cortex. Same" + }, + { + "start": 3488.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stencils moving across your cortex. Same concept<00:58:09.200> as<00:58:09.440> the<00:58:09.599> stencils,<00:58:10.079> just<00:58:10.240> stencils," + }, + { + "start": 3490.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "concept as the stencils, just stencils," + }, + { + "start": 3490.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "concept as the stencils, just stencils, stencils<00:58:11.359> in<00:58:11.599> motion.<00:58:12.559> Now,<00:58:12.880> who<00:58:13.119> is<00:58:13.359> doing" + }, + { + "start": 3493.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stencils in motion. Now, who is doing" + }, + { + "start": 3493.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "stencils in motion. Now, who is doing the<00:58:13.760> the<00:58:14.319> um<00:58:14.480> organizing?<00:58:15.599> That's<00:58:15.839> the" + }, + { + "start": 3496.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the the um organizing? That's the" + }, + { + "start": 3496.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the the um organizing? That's the deepest<00:58:16.799> question,<00:58:17.280> isn't<00:58:17.520> it?<00:58:18.160> And<00:58:18.480> you<00:58:18.640> know" + }, + { + "start": 3499.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "deepest question, isn't it? And you know" + }, + { + "start": 3499.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "deepest question, isn't it? And you know um<00:58:19.839> the<00:58:20.160> way<00:58:20.240> I<00:58:20.559> think<00:58:20.720> about<00:58:20.880> it<00:58:21.200> is<00:58:21.440> that<00:58:21.680> you" + }, + { + "start": 3501.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um the way I think about it is that you" + }, + { + "start": 3501.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "um the way I think about it is that you don't<00:58:22.160> don't<00:58:22.480> need<00:58:23.280> so<00:58:24.000> all<00:58:24.160> the<00:58:24.400> information" + }, + { + "start": 3504.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "don't don't need so all the information" + }, + { + "start": 3504.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "don't don't need so all the information you<00:58:25.200> need<00:58:25.440> for<00:58:26.079> for<00:58:26.480> to<00:58:26.960> engage<00:58:27.280> in<00:58:27.599> complex" + }, + { + "start": 3508.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you need for for to engage in complex" + }, + { + "start": 3508.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you need for for to engage in complex goal<00:58:28.400> directed<00:58:29.119> behavior<00:58:30.079> intelligent" + }, + { + "start": 3510.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "goal directed behavior intelligent" + }, + { + "start": 3510.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "goal directed behavior intelligent behavior<00:58:30.960> is<00:58:31.200> baked<00:58:31.440> into<00:58:31.680> your<00:58:31.920> brain's" + }, + { + "start": 3512.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "behavior is baked into your brain's" + }, + { + "start": 3512.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "behavior is baked into your brain's connections<00:58:32.880> and<00:58:33.040> the<00:58:33.200> way<00:58:33.280> I<00:58:33.599> think<00:58:33.680> about<00:58:33.920> it" + }, + { + "start": 3514.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections and the way I think about it" + }, + { + "start": 3514.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections and the way I think about it is<00:58:34.559> that<00:58:34.720> when<00:58:34.880> neurons<00:58:35.280> start<00:58:35.520> spiking<00:58:36.240> they" + }, + { + "start": 3516.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is that when neurons start spiking they" + }, + { + "start": 3516.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is that when neurons start spiking they express<00:58:36.720> that<00:58:36.960> information<00:58:37.359> in<00:58:37.520> the<00:58:37.680> wave" + }, + { + "start": 3517.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "express that information in the wave" + }, + { + "start": 3518.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "express that information in the wave patterns<00:58:38.720> then<00:58:38.960> those<00:58:39.200> wave<00:58:39.520> patterns<00:58:40.079> that" + }, + { + "start": 3520.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns then those wave patterns that" + }, + { + "start": 3520.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns then those wave patterns that are<00:58:40.480> based<00:58:40.720> on<00:58:40.960> the<00:58:41.200> information<00:58:41.599> about<00:58:42.000> goals" + }, + { + "start": 3522.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are based on the information about goals" + }, + { + "start": 3522.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "are based on the information about goals you<00:58:42.880> know<00:58:43.119> your<00:58:43.359> desires<00:58:44.319> your<00:58:44.640> plans<00:58:45.280> baked" + }, + { + "start": 3525.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you know your desires your plans baked" + }, + { + "start": 3525.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "you know your desires your plans baked into<00:58:45.760> your<00:58:45.920> brain<00:58:46.240> they<00:58:46.480> create<00:58:46.640> a<00:58:46.799> wave" + }, + { + "start": 3527.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "into your brain they create a wave" + }, + { + "start": 3527.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "into your brain they create a wave pattern<00:58:47.359> that<00:58:47.599> reflects<00:58:47.920> that<00:58:48.160> stored" + }, + { + "start": 3528.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "pattern that reflects that stored" + }, + { + "start": 3528.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "pattern that reflects that stored information<00:58:49.040> and<00:58:49.599> input<00:58:50.000> from<00:58:50.240> the<00:58:50.400> outside" + }, + { + "start": 3530.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information and input from the outside" + }, + { + "start": 3530.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information and input from the outside world.<00:58:51.359> Then<00:58:51.599> those<00:58:51.839> wave<00:58:52.160> patterns<00:58:52.720> come" + }, + { + "start": 3532.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "world. Then those wave patterns come" + }, + { + "start": 3532.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "world. Then those wave patterns come together<00:58:53.119> and<00:58:53.280> they<00:58:53.520> create<00:58:53.680> a<00:58:53.839> new<00:58:54.000> wave" + }, + { + "start": 3534.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "together and they create a new wave" + }, + { + "start": 3534.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "together and they create a new wave pattern<00:58:55.040> in<00:58:55.280> a<00:58:55.440> computationally<00:58:56.079> principled" + }, + { + "start": 3536.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "pattern in a computationally principled" + }, + { + "start": 3536.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "pattern in a computationally principled way<00:58:56.960> that's<00:58:57.280> dependent<00:58:57.680> on<00:58:57.839> that<00:58:58.079> on<00:58:58.319> that<00:58:59.040> the" + }, + { + "start": 3539.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "way that's dependent on that on that the" + }, + { + "start": 3539.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "way that's dependent on that on that the initial<00:58:59.520> wave<00:58:59.839> patterns<00:59:00.160> and<00:59:00.319> that<00:59:00.480> produces" + }, + { + "start": 3540.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "initial wave patterns and that produces" + }, + { + "start": 3540.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "initial wave patterns and that produces a<00:59:01.040> new<00:59:01.200> pattern<00:59:01.599> of<00:59:01.760> thoughts<00:59:02.400> and<00:59:02.559> they<00:59:02.799> could" + }, + { + "start": 3542.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a new pattern of thoughts and they could" + }, + { + "start": 3542.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a new pattern of thoughts and they could turn<00:59:03.200> around<00:59:03.359> and<00:59:03.599> then<00:59:04.000> by<00:59:04.240> influencing" + }, + { + "start": 3544.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "turn around and then by influencing" + }, + { + "start": 3544.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "turn around and then by influencing spiking<00:59:05.440> bake<00:59:05.839> information<00:59:06.640> um<00:59:07.200> back<00:59:07.440> into" + }, + { + "start": 3547.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking bake information um back into" + }, + { + "start": 3547.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking bake information um back into your<00:59:07.920> brain<00:59:08.160> again.<00:59:08.720> So<00:59:08.880> the<00:59:09.040> way<00:59:09.119> I<00:59:09.359> think" + }, + { + "start": 3549.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your brain again. So the way I think" + }, + { + "start": 3549.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your brain again. So the way I think about<00:59:09.599> this<00:59:09.760> is<00:59:10.000> that<00:59:10.240> you<00:59:10.400> don't<00:59:10.559> need<00:59:10.799> a" + }, + { + "start": 3551.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "about this is that you don't need a" + }, + { + "start": 3551.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "about this is that you don't need a homunculus<00:59:11.920> a<00:59:12.079> little<00:59:12.319> person<00:59:12.480> in<00:59:12.720> your<00:59:12.880> brain" + }, + { + "start": 3553.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "homunculus a little person in your brain" + }, + { + "start": 3553.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "homunculus a little person in your brain interpreting<00:59:13.760> what's<00:59:14.000> going<00:59:14.160> on.<00:59:14.880> You<00:59:15.119> don't" + }, + { + "start": 3555.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "interpreting what's going on. You don't" + }, + { + "start": 3555.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "interpreting what's going on. You don't need<00:59:15.359> a<00:59:15.760> you<00:59:15.920> know<00:59:16.160> neuroscientists<00:59:17.119> like<00:59:17.440> me" + }, + { + "start": 3557.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "need a you know neuroscientists like me" + }, + { + "start": 3557.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "need a you know neuroscientists like me we<00:59:17.920> we<00:59:18.559> they<00:59:18.799> we<00:59:18.960> use<00:59:19.200> down<00:59:19.440> we<00:59:19.599> use<00:59:19.760> decoders" + }, + { + "start": 3560.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we we they we use down we use decoders" + }, + { + "start": 3560.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we we they we use down we use decoders all<00:59:20.480> the<00:59:20.640> time<00:59:21.119> on<00:59:21.359> our<00:59:21.839> neural<00:59:22.160> activity<00:59:22.799> can" + }, + { + "start": 3562.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "all the time on our neural activity can" + }, + { + "start": 3562.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "all the time on our neural activity can I<00:59:23.119> decode<00:59:23.599> information<00:59:24.079> from<00:59:24.480> this<00:59:24.960> activity" + }, + { + "start": 3565.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I decode information from this activity" + }, + { + "start": 3565.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "I decode information from this activity and<00:59:25.680> that's<00:59:25.839> a<00:59:26.000> very<00:59:26.240> useful<00:59:26.640> tool<00:59:27.440> but<00:59:27.680> some" + }, + { + "start": 3567.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and that's a very useful tool but some" + }, + { + "start": 3567.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and that's a very useful tool but some neuroscientists<00:59:28.960> um<00:59:29.599> there's<00:59:29.839> this<00:59:30.000> tacid" + }, + { + "start": 3570.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuroscientists um there's this tacid" + }, + { + "start": 3570.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "neuroscientists um there's this tacid assumption<00:59:30.799> that<00:59:31.200> something<00:59:31.520> must<00:59:31.760> be" + }, + { + "start": 3571.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "assumption that something must be" + }, + { + "start": 3572.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "assumption that something must be decoding<00:59:32.559> activity<00:59:33.680> well<00:59:33.920> the<00:59:34.079> way<00:59:34.240> I<00:59:34.400> think" + }, + { + "start": 3574.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "decoding activity well the way I think" + }, + { + "start": 3574.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "decoding activity well the way I think about<00:59:34.720> it<00:59:34.960> these<00:59:35.200> wave<00:59:35.520> patterns<00:59:35.920> producing" + }, + { + "start": 3576.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "about it these wave patterns producing" + }, + { + "start": 3576.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "about it these wave patterns producing new<00:59:36.480> wave<00:59:36.799> patterns<00:59:37.119> are<00:59:37.599> patterns<00:59:38.000> of<00:59:38.319> brain" + }, + { + "start": 3578.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "new wave patterns are patterns of brain" + }, + { + "start": 3578.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "new wave patterns are patterns of brain excitation<00:59:39.520> producing<00:59:39.920> new<00:59:40.240> patterns<00:59:40.480> in<00:59:40.720> a" + }, + { + "start": 3580.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "excitation producing new patterns in a" + }, + { + "start": 3580.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "excitation producing new patterns in a computationally<00:59:41.839> principled<00:59:42.400> way<00:59:43.040> and<00:59:43.200> you" + }, + { + "start": 3583.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computationally principled way and you" + }, + { + "start": 3583.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "computationally principled way and you don't<00:59:43.599> need<00:59:44.319> a<00:59:44.480> homunculus.<00:59:45.040> You<00:59:45.200> don't<00:59:45.280> need" + }, + { + "start": 3585.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "don't need a homunculus. You don't need" + }, + { + "start": 3585.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "don't need a homunculus. You don't need a<00:59:45.599> downstream<00:59:46.000> decoder.<00:59:46.480> It's<00:59:46.640> just<00:59:46.880> wave" + }, + { + "start": 3587.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a downstream decoder. It's just wave" + }, + { + "start": 3587.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "a downstream decoder. It's just wave patterns<00:59:47.520> producing<00:59:47.920> wave<00:59:48.160> patterns<00:59:48.559> based" + }, + { + "start": 3588.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns producing wave patterns based" + }, + { + "start": 3588.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns producing wave patterns based on<00:59:49.040> the<00:59:49.440> um<00:59:50.000> on<00:59:50.240> the<00:59:50.559> um<00:59:51.200> knowledge<00:59:51.520> your<00:59:51.760> brain" + }, + { + "start": 3591.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "on the um on the um knowledge your brain" + }, + { + "start": 3592.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "on the um on the um knowledge your brain already<00:59:52.240> has<00:59:52.559> baked<00:59:52.880> into<00:59:53.200> it.<00:59:53.760> So<00:59:54.160> that's<00:59:54.319> the" + }, + { + "start": 3594.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "already has baked into it. So that's the" + }, + { + "start": 3594.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "already has baked into it. So that's the way<00:59:54.559> I<00:59:54.720> think<00:59:54.880> about<00:59:55.119> the<00:59:55.280> control<00:59:55.599> happens." + }, + { + "start": 3595.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "way I think about the control happens." + }, + { + "start": 3596.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "way I think about the control happens. Control<00:59:56.319> happens<00:59:56.720> because<00:59:56.960> your<00:59:57.200> brain<00:59:57.440> has" + }, + { + "start": 3597.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Control happens because your brain has" + }, + { + "start": 3597.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Control happens because your brain has the<00:59:58.079> um<00:59:58.640> information<00:59:59.119> needed<00:59:59.440> to<00:59:59.599> exert<01:00:00.000> this" + }, + { + "start": 3600.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the um information needed to exert this" + }, + { + "start": 3600.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the um information needed to exert this control<01:00:00.480> and<01:00:00.640> the<01:00:00.799> wave<01:00:00.960> patterns<01:00:01.280> create" + }, + { + "start": 3601.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "control and the wave patterns create" + }, + { + "start": 3601.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "control and the wave patterns create those<01:00:01.839> control<01:00:02.079> because<01:00:02.319> it's<01:00:02.559> based<01:00:02.720> on<01:00:02.880> that" + }, + { + "start": 3603.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "those control because it's based on that" + }, + { + "start": 3603.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "those control because it's based on that information<01:00:04.000> stored<01:00:04.319> in<01:00:04.480> your<01:00:04.720> brain." + }, + { + "start": 3606.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information stored in your brain." + }, + { + "start": 3606.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information stored in your brain. That's<01:00:06.799> all<01:00:06.960> I<01:00:07.119> got<01:00:07.520> for<01:00:07.920> for<01:00:08.160> consciousness." + }, + { + "start": 3611.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Thank<01:00:11.920> you.<01:00:13.040> Um<01:00:13.520> I<01:00:13.760> have<01:00:13.839> a<01:00:14.079> question<01:00:14.400> about" + }, + { + "start": 3614.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Thank you. Um I have a question about" + }, + { + "start": 3614.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Thank you. Um I have a question about that.<01:00:15.040> Um<01:00:15.920> you're<01:00:16.240> talking<01:00:16.480> about" + }, + { + "start": 3616.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that. Um you're talking about" + }, + { + "start": 3616.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that. Um you're talking about consciousness<01:00:17.599> but<01:00:18.000> what<01:00:18.319> about<01:00:18.720> memory?" + }, + { + "start": 3620.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "consciousness but what about memory?" + }, + { + "start": 3620.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "consciousness but what about memory? >> Is<01:00:20.960> wave<01:00:22.240> as<01:00:22.559> wave<01:00:23.040> contribute<01:00:23.599> to<01:00:23.839> memory<01:00:24.720> to" + }, + { + "start": 3625.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Is wave as wave contribute to memory to" + }, + { + "start": 3625.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Is wave as wave contribute to memory to storing<01:00:25.520> or<01:00:25.760> retrieving<01:00:26.319> memory?<01:00:27.359> Well," + }, + { + "start": 3627.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "storing or retrieving memory? Well," + }, + { + "start": 3627.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "storing or retrieving memory? Well, certainly<01:00:28.240> I<01:00:28.400> mean<01:00:28.480> this<01:00:29.280> when<01:00:29.839> those" + }, + { + "start": 3630.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "certainly I mean this when those" + }, + { + "start": 3630.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "certainly I mean this when those information<01:00:30.640> is<01:00:30.880> encoded<01:00:31.920> memories<01:00:32.240> are" + }, + { + "start": 3632.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information is encoded memories are" + }, + { + "start": 3632.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information is encoded memories are encoded<01:00:33.040> in<01:00:33.200> the<01:00:33.359> connections<01:00:33.680> in<01:00:33.839> your<01:00:34.079> brain" + }, + { + "start": 3634.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "encoded in the connections in your brain" + }, + { + "start": 3634.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "encoded in the connections in your brain and<01:00:34.799> the<01:00:35.040> synaptic<01:00:35.520> weights<01:00:36.240> much<01:00:36.400> like<01:00:36.640> AI" + }, + { + "start": 3636.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and the synaptic weights much like AI" + }, + { + "start": 3636.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and the synaptic weights much like AI and<01:00:37.119> connectors<01:00:37.599> themselves<01:00:38.160> probably<01:00:39.599> and" + }, + { + "start": 3639.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and connectors themselves probably and" + }, + { + "start": 3639.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and connectors themselves probably and when<01:00:40.240> that<01:00:40.480> information<01:00:41.200> gets<01:00:41.520> expressed<01:00:41.839> by" + }, + { + "start": 3642.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "when that information gets expressed by" + }, + { + "start": 3642.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "when that information gets expressed by spiking<01:00:42.480> it<01:00:42.720> produces<01:00:43.280> those<01:00:43.520> wave<01:00:43.760> patterns" + }, + { + "start": 3643.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking it produces those wave patterns" + }, + { + "start": 3644.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking it produces those wave patterns and<01:00:44.079> that<01:00:44.240> that<01:00:44.720> wave<01:00:45.040> pattern<01:00:45.280> is<01:00:45.440> now<01:00:45.599> the" + }, + { + "start": 3645.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and that that wave pattern is now the" + }, + { + "start": 3645.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and that that wave pattern is now the memory<01:00:46.079> that<01:00:46.240> you're<01:00:46.480> now<01:00:47.040> thinking<01:00:47.359> about" + }, + { + "start": 3647.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "memory that you're now thinking about" + }, + { + "start": 3647.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "memory that you're now thinking about holding<01:00:48.000> in<01:00:48.240> your<01:00:48.400> mind<01:00:48.640> holding<01:00:49.280> your" + }, + { + "start": 3649.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "holding in your mind holding your" + }, + { + "start": 3649.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "holding in your mind holding your conscious<01:00:50.240> of.<01:00:50.799> But<01:00:51.040> then<01:00:51.200> when<01:00:51.839> they<01:00:52.079> create" + }, + { + "start": 3652.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "conscious of. But then when they create" + }, + { + "start": 3652.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "conscious of. But then when they create new<01:00:52.559> wave<01:00:52.880> patterns<01:00:53.520> because<01:00:53.839> the<01:00:54.000> wave" + }, + { + "start": 3654.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "new wave patterns because the wave" + }, + { + "start": 3654.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "new wave patterns because the wave patterns<01:00:54.559> have<01:00:54.640> a<01:00:54.799> downward<01:00:55.119> influence<01:00:55.440> on" + }, + { + "start": 3655.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns have a downward influence on" + }, + { + "start": 3655.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "patterns have a downward influence on spiking<01:00:56.400> and<01:00:56.720> spiking<01:00:57.359> changes<01:00:57.680> the" + }, + { + "start": 3657.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking and spiking changes the" + }, + { + "start": 3657.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking and spiking changes the connections<01:00:58.240> of<01:00:58.319> the<01:00:58.480> brain<01:00:58.720> they<01:00:58.880> can<01:00:59.040> now" + }, + { + "start": 3659.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections of the brain they can now" + }, + { + "start": 3659.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "connections of the brain they can now exer<01:00:59.760> um<01:01:00.160> store<01:01:00.480> new<01:01:00.720> memories<01:01:00.960> in<01:01:01.200> your" + }, + { + "start": 3661.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "exer um store new memories in your" + }, + { + "start": 3661.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "exer um store new memories in your brain." + }, + { + "start": 3663.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain." + }, + { + "start": 3663.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain. >> Okay.<01:01:03.839> So<01:01:04.240> what<01:01:04.480> kind<01:01:04.799> what<01:01:05.119> kind<01:01:05.359> of<01:01:05.599> speed<01:01:06.079> I" + }, + { + "start": 3666.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Okay. So what kind what kind of speed I" + }, + { + "start": 3666.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Okay. So what kind what kind of speed I can<01:01:07.119> um<01:01:08.400> uh<01:01:08.720> expect<01:01:09.119> from<01:01:09.440> that<01:01:09.760> kind<01:01:10.000> of<01:01:10.480> um" + }, + { + "start": 3670.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "can um uh expect from that kind of um" + }, + { + "start": 3670.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "can um uh expect from that kind of um mechanism<01:01:11.760> of<01:01:12.079> wave<01:01:12.480> mechanism" + }, + { + "start": 3673.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mechanism of wave mechanism" + }, + { + "start": 3673.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "mechanism of wave mechanism >> speed<01:01:13.520> of<01:01:14.000> encoding<01:01:14.640> information<01:01:15.440> of" + }, + { + "start": 3675.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> speed of encoding information of" + }, + { + "start": 3675.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> speed of encoding information of >> encoding<01:01:16.720> driving." + }, + { + "start": 3677.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> encoding driving." + }, + { + "start": 3677.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> encoding driving. >> Yeah.<01:01:17.839> Well,<01:01:18.079> it's<01:01:18.240> the<01:01:18.480> same<01:01:18.640> speed<01:01:18.880> as<01:01:18.960> the" + }, + { + "start": 3679.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yeah. Well, it's the same speed as the" + }, + { + "start": 3679.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yeah. Well, it's the same speed as the speed<01:01:19.599> as<01:01:19.839> spiking.<01:01:20.240> All<01:01:20.400> it<01:01:20.559> is<01:01:20.640> is<01:01:20.720> another" + }, + { + "start": 3681.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "speed as spiking. All it is is another" + }, + { + "start": 3681.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "speed as spiking. All it is is another level<01:01:21.280> of<01:01:21.440> organization<01:01:22.000> on<01:01:22.240> top<01:01:22.400> of<01:01:22.480> the<01:01:22.640> way" + }, + { + "start": 3682.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "level of organization on top of the way" + }, + { + "start": 3682.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "level of organization on top of the way we<01:01:23.839> traditionally<01:01:24.400> thought<01:01:24.559> about<01:01:24.799> memories" + }, + { + "start": 3685.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we traditionally thought about memories" + }, + { + "start": 3685.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "we traditionally thought about memories in<01:01:25.359> terms<01:01:25.520> of<01:01:25.760> being<01:01:26.160> expressed<01:01:26.559> by<01:01:26.720> spiking" + }, + { + "start": 3687.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in terms of being expressed by spiking" + }, + { + "start": 3687.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "in terms of being expressed by spiking and<01:01:27.280> induced<01:01:27.680> by<01:01:27.839> spiking.<01:01:28.640> So,<01:01:28.799> it's<01:01:29.040> the" + }, + { + "start": 3689.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and induced by spiking. So, it's the" + }, + { + "start": 3689.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and induced by spiking. So, it's the same<01:01:29.440> dynamics.<01:01:30.079> It's<01:01:30.240> same<01:01:30.400> time<01:01:30.720> course," + }, + { + "start": 3690.95, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "same dynamics. It's same time course," + }, + { + "start": 3690.96, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "same dynamics. It's same time course, same<01:01:31.280> everything.<01:01:31.520> It's<01:01:31.680> just<01:01:31.920> how<01:01:32.160> the" + }, + { + "start": 3692.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "same everything. It's just how the" + }, + { + "start": 3692.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "same everything. It's just how the information<01:01:32.640> is<01:01:32.880> expressed<01:01:33.200> at<01:01:33.359> a<01:01:33.520> higher" + }, + { + "start": 3693.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information is expressed at a higher" + }, + { + "start": 3693.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "information is expressed at a higher level." + }, + { + "start": 3695.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "level." + }, + { + "start": 3695.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "level. >> Right?<01:01:36.319> I'm<01:01:36.559> trying<01:01:36.799> to<01:01:36.960> think<01:01:37.200> about<01:01:37.440> the<01:01:37.599> the" + }, + { + "start": 3697.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Right? I'm trying to think about the the" + }, + { + "start": 3697.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Right? I'm trying to think about the the experiment<01:01:38.400> of<01:01:39.520> reacting<01:01:40.079> to<01:01:40.480> a<01:01:40.880> surprise<01:01:41.680> or" + }, + { + "start": 3701.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "experiment of reacting to a surprise or" + }, + { + "start": 3701.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "experiment of reacting to a surprise or or<01:01:42.640> break<01:01:43.359> pressing<01:01:43.680> the<01:01:43.920> brakes<01:01:44.240> on<01:01:44.400> the<01:01:44.640> car." + }, + { + "start": 3705.43, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "or break pressing the brakes on the car." + }, + { + "start": 3705.44, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "or break pressing the brakes on the car. uh<01:01:45.839> um" + }, + { + "start": 3706.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh um" + }, + { + "start": 3706.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "uh um >> if<01:01:47.280> you<01:01:47.520> need<01:01:47.760> to<01:01:48.480> make<01:01:48.720> a<01:01:48.960> decision,<01:01:49.760> see" + }, + { + "start": 3710.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> if you need to make a decision, see" + }, + { + "start": 3710.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> if you need to make a decision, see something<01:01:50.720> and<01:01:51.119> press<01:01:51.359> the<01:01:51.599> brakes,<01:01:52.480> that's" + }, + { + "start": 3713.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "something and press the brakes, that's" + }, + { + "start": 3713.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "something and press the brakes, that's couple<01:01:53.520> of<01:01:53.680> milliseconds<01:01:54.559> and<01:01:54.720> and<01:01:55.440> to<01:01:55.839> do" + }, + { + "start": 3716.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "couple of milliseconds and and to do" + }, + { + "start": 3716.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "couple of milliseconds and and to do that<01:01:56.720> what<01:01:56.960> I<01:01:57.119> understand<01:01:57.599> you<01:01:57.760> need<01:01:58.720> pretty" + }, + { + "start": 3719.109, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that what I understand you need pretty" + }, + { + "start": 3719.119, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that what I understand you need pretty much<01:02:00.000> a<01:02:00.480> huge<01:02:00.880> amount<01:02:01.040> of<01:02:01.280> speed<01:02:01.680> in<01:02:01.920> terms<01:02:02.079> of" + }, + { + "start": 3722.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "much a huge amount of speed in terms of" + }, + { + "start": 3722.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "much a huge amount of speed in terms of the<01:02:02.480> system." + }, + { + "start": 3723.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the system." + }, + { + "start": 3723.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the system. >> Yep." + }, + { + "start": 3724.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yep." + }, + { + "start": 3724.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Yep. >> And<01:02:05.119> I<01:02:05.920> I<01:02:06.000> I<01:02:06.480> don't<01:02:06.720> know<01:02:06.960> how<01:02:07.119> if<01:02:07.359> it's" + }, + { + "start": 3727.589, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> And I I I don't know how if it's" + }, + { + "start": 3727.599, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> And I I I don't know how if it's possible<01:02:07.920> to<01:02:08.319> create<01:02:08.720> that<01:02:08.960> kind<01:02:09.119> of<01:02:09.280> speed." + }, + { + "start": 3730.23, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "possible to create that kind of speed." + }, + { + "start": 3730.24, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "possible to create that kind of speed. >> Uh<01:02:10.559> sure<01:02:10.799> it<01:02:11.119> I<01:02:11.280> mean,<01:02:11.359> it's<01:02:11.599> it's<01:02:12.000> more" + }, + { + "start": 3732.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Uh sure it I mean, it's it's more" + }, + { + "start": 3732.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Uh sure it I mean, it's it's more possible<01:02:12.400> to<01:02:12.559> create<01:02:12.720> it<01:02:12.880> with<01:02:12.960> waves<01:02:13.200> than<01:02:13.280> it" + }, + { + "start": 3733.349, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "possible to create it with waves than it" + }, + { + "start": 3733.359, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "possible to create it with waves than it is<01:02:13.520> with<01:02:13.680> spiking<01:02:14.079> alone<01:02:14.400> because<01:02:14.720> the" + }, + { + "start": 3735.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is with spiking alone because the" + }, + { + "start": 3735.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is with spiking alone because the electrical<01:02:15.440> field<01:02:15.680> includes<01:02:16.160> move<01:02:16.319> around" + }, + { + "start": 3736.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical field includes move around" + }, + { + "start": 3736.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "electrical field includes move around your<01:02:16.720> brain<01:02:17.040> 5,000<01:02:17.599> times<01:02:17.839> faster<01:02:18.160> than" + }, + { + "start": 3738.39, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your brain 5,000 times faster than" + }, + { + "start": 3738.4, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your brain 5,000 times faster than spiking.<01:02:18.880> So,<01:02:19.119> that<01:02:19.359> produces<01:02:19.680> a<01:02:19.920> lot<01:02:20.000> of<01:02:20.240> uh" + }, + { + "start": 3740.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking. So, that produces a lot of uh" + }, + { + "start": 3740.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "spiking. So, that produces a lot of uh that's<01:02:20.960> a<01:02:21.119> lot<01:02:21.200> of<01:02:21.280> speed<01:02:21.520> gain<01:02:21.839> right<01:02:22.000> there." + }, + { + "start": 3742.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's a lot of speed gain right there." + }, + { + "start": 3742.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "that's a lot of speed gain right there. But<01:02:22.720> the<01:02:22.880> other<01:02:23.119> thing<01:02:23.200> to<01:02:23.760> um<01:02:24.160> if<01:02:24.319> we're" + }, + { + "start": 3744.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But the other thing to um if we're" + }, + { + "start": 3744.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "But the other thing to um if we're talking<01:02:24.640> about<01:02:24.799> consciousness,<01:02:25.359> which<01:02:25.520> I" + }, + { + "start": 3745.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "talking about consciousness, which I" + }, + { + "start": 3745.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "talking about consciousness, which I think is<01:02:25.920> how<01:02:26.000> we<01:02:26.240> began<01:02:26.559> this<01:02:26.799> this" + }, + { + "start": 3747.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "think is how we began this this" + }, + { + "start": 3747.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "think is how we began this this question.<01:02:28.079> Um<01:02:28.559> first<01:02:28.799> of<01:02:28.880> all,<01:02:29.359> when<01:02:29.520> you<01:02:29.760> put" + }, + { + "start": 3749.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "question. Um first of all, when you put" + }, + { + "start": 3750.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "question. Um first of all, when you put your<01:02:30.160> foot<01:02:30.400> to<01:02:30.559> break,<01:02:31.119> that's<01:02:31.359> an" + }, + { + "start": 3751.51, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your foot to break, that's an" + }, + { + "start": 3751.52, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "your foot to break, that's an unconscious<01:02:32.079> thing.<01:02:32.240> A<01:02:32.400> lot<01:02:32.480> of<01:02:32.720> what<01:02:32.880> your" + }, + { + "start": 3753.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "unconscious thing. A lot of what your" + }, + { + "start": 3753.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "unconscious thing. A lot of what your brain<01:02:33.280> does<01:02:33.440> is<01:02:33.680> unconscious.<01:02:34.559> Okay?" + }, + { + "start": 3755.27, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain does is unconscious. Okay?" + }, + { + "start": 3755.28, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain does is unconscious. Okay? Consciousness<01:02:35.760> is<01:02:35.920> often<01:02:36.240> the<01:02:36.400> story<01:02:36.640> your" + }, + { + "start": 3756.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Consciousness is often the story your" + }, + { + "start": 3756.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "Consciousness is often the story your brain<01:02:37.119> makes<01:02:37.440> up<01:02:37.599> to<01:02:37.839> explain<01:02:38.079> what<01:02:38.240> it<01:02:38.480> just" + }, + { + "start": 3758.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain makes up to explain what it just" + }, + { + "start": 3758.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "brain makes up to explain what it just did.<01:02:39.119> Consciousness<01:02:40.079> is<01:02:40.319> good<01:02:40.559> for<01:02:41.200> planning" + }, + { + "start": 3761.67, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "did. Consciousness is good for planning" + }, + { + "start": 3761.68, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "did. Consciousness is good for planning behavior<01:02:42.480> and<01:02:42.799> for<01:02:43.520> counter<01:02:44.079> countermanding" + }, + { + "start": 3764.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "behavior and for counter countermanding" + }, + { + "start": 3764.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "behavior and for counter countermanding something<01:02:45.200> stupid<01:02:45.599> you<01:02:45.839> you<01:02:46.079> were<01:02:46.240> about<01:02:46.400> to" + }, + { + "start": 3766.549, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "something stupid you you were about to" + }, + { + "start": 3766.559, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "something stupid you you were about to do.<01:02:47.200> That's<01:02:47.440> pretty<01:02:47.680> much<01:02:47.839> it.<01:02:48.319> It<01:02:48.480> takes" + }, + { + "start": 3768.71, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "do. That's pretty much it. It takes" + }, + { + "start": 3768.72, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "do. That's pretty much it. It takes about<01:02:48.960> half<01:02:49.200> a<01:02:49.440> second<01:02:49.680> for<01:02:50.160> your<01:02:50.400> conscious" + }, + { + "start": 3771.03, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "about half a second for your conscious" + }, + { + "start": 3771.04, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "about half a second for your conscious for<01:02:51.200> you<01:02:51.280> to<01:02:51.440> be<01:02:51.520> consciously<01:02:52.000> aware<01:02:52.240> of<01:02:52.400> the" + }, + { + "start": 3772.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "for you to be consciously aware of the" + }, + { + "start": 3772.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "for you to be consciously aware of the outside<01:02:52.960> world.<01:02:53.520> Half<01:02:53.760> a<01:02:54.000> second.<01:02:54.480> That's<01:02:54.720> an" + }, + { + "start": 3774.789, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "outside world. Half a second. That's an" + }, + { + "start": 3774.799, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "outside world. Half a second. That's an eternity.<01:02:55.280> Everything<01:02:55.440> you're<01:02:55.599> consciously" + }, + { + "start": 3775.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "eternity. Everything you're consciously" + }, + { + "start": 3776.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "eternity. Everything you're consciously aware<01:02:56.160> of<01:02:56.240> is<01:02:56.480> already<01:02:56.720> half<01:02:56.880> a<01:02:57.040> second<01:02:57.359> in<01:02:57.680> the" + }, + { + "start": 3777.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "aware of is already half a second in the" + }, + { + "start": 3777.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "aware of is already half a second in the past.<01:02:58.480> So<01:02:58.640> a<01:02:58.799> lot<01:02:58.880> of<01:02:58.960> the<01:02:59.119> stuff<01:02:59.280> your<01:02:59.520> brain" + }, + { + "start": 3779.75, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "past. So a lot of the stuff your brain" + }, + { + "start": 3779.76, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "past. So a lot of the stuff your brain is<01:03:00.000> doing<01:03:00.480> is<01:03:00.799> unconscious.<01:03:01.520> Lot<01:03:01.680> a<01:03:01.839> lot<01:03:01.920> of" + }, + { + "start": 3781.99, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is doing is unconscious. Lot a lot of" + }, + { + "start": 3782.0, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "is doing is unconscious. Lot a lot of the<01:03:02.160> decisions<01:03:02.559> you're<01:03:02.880> making<01:03:03.359> are<01:03:04.000> your" + }, + { + "start": 3784.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the decisions you're making are your" + }, + { + "start": 3784.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "the decisions you're making are your unconscious<01:03:04.960> decision<01:03:05.280> your<01:03:05.520> brain<01:03:05.680> is" + }, + { + "start": 3785.91, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "unconscious decision your brain is" + }, + { + "start": 3785.92, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "unconscious decision your brain is making.<01:03:06.480> And<01:03:06.720> cautiousness<01:03:07.280> is<01:03:07.440> kind<01:03:07.599> of<01:03:07.680> the" + }, + { + "start": 3788.15, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "making. And cautiousness is kind of the" + }, + { + "start": 3788.16, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "making. And cautiousness is kind of the it's<01:03:08.480> kind<01:03:08.640> of<01:03:08.640> the<01:03:08.880> apex<01:03:09.520> of<01:03:09.760> this<01:03:10.000> control" + }, + { + "start": 3790.309, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it's kind of the apex of this control" + }, + { + "start": 3790.319, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "it's kind of the apex of this control system<01:03:10.640> because<01:03:10.880> it<01:03:11.119> allows<01:03:11.440> you<01:03:11.599> to<01:03:12.240> sit<01:03:12.480> back" + }, + { + "start": 3792.63, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "system because it allows you to sit back" + }, + { + "start": 3792.64, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "system because it allows you to sit back and<01:03:12.880> deliberate<01:03:13.359> and<01:03:13.599> plan<01:03:14.319> but<01:03:14.559> but<01:03:14.799> it's<01:03:15.039> not" + }, + { + "start": 3795.19, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and deliberate and plan but but it's not" + }, + { + "start": 3795.2, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "and deliberate and plan but but it's not necessary<01:03:15.520> for<01:03:15.680> a<01:03:15.839> lot<01:03:16.000> of<01:03:16.079> complex<01:03:16.480> behavior." + }, + { + "start": 3797.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "necessary for a lot of complex behavior." + }, + { + "start": 3797.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "necessary for a lot of complex behavior. >> Right.<01:03:18.240> Okay.<01:03:19.280> Thank<01:03:19.440> you." + }, + { + "start": 3800.47, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Right. Okay. Thank you." + }, + { + "start": 3800.48, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> Right. Okay. Thank you. >> But<01:03:20.640> I'm<01:03:20.880> sorry<01:03:20.960> I<01:03:21.200> have<01:03:21.280> to<01:03:21.359> run.<01:03:21.520> I<01:03:21.680> have<01:03:21.760> to" + }, + { + "start": 3801.829, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> But I'm sorry I have to run. I have to" + }, + { + "start": 3801.839, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": ">> But I'm sorry I have to run. I have to go<01:03:21.920> to<01:03:22.079> a<01:03:22.400> faculty<01:03:22.799> meeting.<01:03:23.119> But<01:03:23.440> uh<01:03:23.520> it<01:03:23.680> was<01:03:23.839> a" + }, + { + "start": 3804.069, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "go to a faculty meeting. But uh it was a" + }, + { + "start": 3804.079, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "go to a faculty meeting. But uh it was a great<01:03:24.640> pleasure<01:03:24.960> to<01:03:25.200> talk<01:03:25.359> to<01:03:25.520> you<01:03:25.680> guys.<01:03:26.480> Um," + }, + { + "start": 3806.87, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "great pleasure to talk to you guys. Um," + }, + { + "start": 3806.88, + "duration": 0.0, + "text": "great pleasure to talk to you guys. Um, thank<01:03:26.960> you<01:03:27.119> for<01:03:27.280> the<01:03:27.440> invitation." + } + ], + "plain": "um what I'll be talking about today, I'm\na neuroscientist at at MIT and our lab\nhas been um examining the role of\nelectric field effects in uh in in um\ncognition and consciousness and it's\nelectric fields are something that's\nbeen um it's a signal it's a mechanism\nthat's been underststudied in\nneuroscience and we're trying to change\nthat. So let me dive right in. So I\nthink the the best way to tell you how\nour think where our thinking about the\nbrain is right now is to tell you where\nwe came from. So I'm going to give you a\nlittle bit of an historical overview of\nour how our thinking in the brain has\nchanged in the past I don't know hundred\nyears and then you'll you'll you'll have\na better understanding of of where where\nwe why we're thinking the way we do now.\nSo sorry let me get my screen going.\nThere we go. What is thought? Well we\nknow thought is composed of neurons.\nNeurons are brain cells. They connect to\none another at junctions, connections\ncalled synapses. And they signal each\nother by brief electrical impulses that\nwe call spikes. And I'll be referring to\nspikes for the rest of my talk in\naddition to electric field. But spikes\nare the electrical impulses from\nindividual neurons like individual\nvoices in a large crowd. And the idea is\nthat the neurons signal one another by\nby um sending these spikes along uh um\naxons and dendrites. the connections and\nacross synapses and that's what's\nillustrated here spiking activity the\nbrain signaling all taking place by\nthese spiking moving down the brain's\nconnections and the brains have a lot of\nthis stuff your cortex alone I'll be f\nsince I'm interested in cognition and\nconsciousness I'm uh going to focus\nmainly on the cortex today the cortex\nalone which is where a lot of the higher\nthinking in your brain goes on your\ncortex alone contains 20 billion neurons\nand they form uh 10 to the 14 synaptic\nconnections. I don't know what number 10\nto the 14 is. Let's just call it a\ngazillion.\nAnd at first, like um before the mid\n20th century, so late 1800s, early early\nuh uh early 1900s, um neurons were\npoorly understood and sometimes they\nwere regarded as like mere build\nbuilding blocks or scaffolding,\nright? thought that that neurons were\nlike the the somehow the stuff that\nconstructs the brain, but they didn't\nseem to have any distinct function. And\nwhy is that? Well, you know, there's\nlimitations to technology. Until about\nthe 1950s, we didn't have the technology\nto eased on the spikes from individual\nneurons. And also, if you're going to\nstudy something as complex as the brain,\nyou got to start somewhere. You don't\ndive into the details immediately. You\nbuild up from the details by starting\nsimple. And the simplest place to start\nis the brain's gross anatomy.\nBut by the 1950s, we developed a\ntechnology to study electrical spiking\nof individual neurons. And a major\ndiscovery was that neurons are not\nbricks or scaffolding. They're little\ninformation processing units.\nAnd this is based on the Nobel prize the\nthe watershed was the Nobel Prize\nwinning work of Hub and Visel where\nwhat's shown here is for example they\nwere recording from individual neurons\nin the visual cortex which is at the\nvery back of your brain. It's sort of\nthe first v stage of visual processing\ngoes on in your cortex and they showed\nthe subject different stimuli different\npictures different features on on a\nscreen. In this case, this individual\nneuron they're recording from happened\nto give off spikes at the site of this\nleftleaning line appearing at this\nparticular location on the screen. So\nthis neuron, this individual neuron is\nlike a geiger counter for this one\nvisual feature detecting that one visual\nfeature. And other neurons detect\ndetected other features like right\nleaning lines or squares or colors. And\nthe idea was that other neurons spike at\ndifferent things. So they detect other\nthings. they're sending different\nmessages\nand this led to the dominant model in\nthe late 20th century of of the brain\nand that is connectionism.\nUh the cortex was thought to be wired\nlike a giant telegraph system that\ncombines signals. So the spikes travel\ndown these telegraph like wires and\nneurons signal one another. These little\ninformation processing units signal one\nanother like a giant telegraph system.\nAnd this is captured here. If I get this\nright, here's here's the primary visual\ncortex at the back of the brain. And\nhere's the um edge detectors like I\nshowed you earlier at this first stage\nof visual processing. There's ner here's\na visual scene here of these this kind\nof bent paper clip. And the idea was\nthat individual neurons back in primary\nvisual cortex detect different features\nof this uh scene. In this case, the\nsimplest case is the simple line\nsegments of different orientations.\nAnd then those edge detectors combine to\na second level of processing where they\ncombine their activity to detectors of\nlonger edges.\nAnd then those longer edge detectors\ncombine their signaling and you get\ncorner detectors.\nThen you combine more and more and\neventually you get neurons that are that\nare only spike the whole images or whole\nthings like faces or or hands and stuff\nstuff like that. And because there's 20\nbillion neurons in your cortex, the idea\nwas that if you combine combine, combine\nenough, you eventually get neurons and\ncircuits specialized for peace, love,\nand understanding. That's the way we\nthought about the brain in the 20th\ncentury. This this connectionism and\nthis combining of signals into higher\nlevels of specialization and complexity.\nAnd this may be familiar to you because\nthis is how AI kind of works. Large\nlanguage models are trained on large\ndata sets and they adjust their\nconnections, their associations to\ncapture statistical patterns in the\ndata. This is where AI got this idea\nfrom from the from how we thought the\nbrain worked.\nBut starting about the um turn of this\ncentury, a discovery challenged\nconnectionism. The discovery of\nmultifunctional neurons. These neurons\nrather than being selective for one\nthing indicated by these single colors\nhere, these neurons in cortex, they\ncombined different features in seemingly\nways that didn't make sense from a from\na neuron having a single function. Their\nspiking of these neurons reflected\ncomplex nonlinear combinations of\ndifferent things in different\nsituations.\nOkay, as a result, these neurons were\nmultifunctional. They didn't just do one\nthing and send one message. They sent\ndifferent message in different\nAnd what that means is that cortex is a\nweb of overlapping multifunctional\nnetworks that constantly interact. Not a\ncollection of specialized parts like we\nthought or specialized circuits. So the\ncortex didn't seem to be specialized\nlike this but we like we thought the\n20th century. It was more like this. a\ncollection of overlapping networks or\nindividual neurons participate in\nmultiple different networks and they\nchange their network participation in\ndifferent situations.\nNow I'm just for a moment I'm going to\ntake a little bit of a detour here and\nexplain to you a little bit about the\nproperty of mix activity because it\nreally is key. Your cortex is full of\nthese neurons and they form a core\ncomputational strategy that of your\ncortex.\nSo here's an example of mixed\nselectivity neurons. First, we'll start\nwith a 20th century model, the\nspecialized neurons. And here's a simple\ntask. You have the subject. In our case,\nwe use non-human primates, monkeys. We\nhave the subject. I hope you guys can\nsee my cursor. Can you give me a thumbs\nup if you can? Good. Um, in this simple\ntask, the animal sees two objects in a\nrow. This case, a butterfly and a and a\num and a um padlock. Then after a short\nmemory delay, they're given three\npictures sim three objects\nsimultaneously and they have to\ndemonstrate their memory for the order.\nThese two pictures are in their order by\nchoosing them in in sequence. So first\nchoose the butterfly, then choose the\ne the butterfly, then choose the\npadlock. That's uh that's because that's\nwhat the the animal just saw. Now\naccording to the 20th century model,\nwhat should happen is you should find\nsome neurons that are selective. They\nspike selectively to different objects.\nSo here's a neuron that spikes the most\nto the padlock and the least to the this\nis neural activity spiking activity on\nthe x- axis time on the x- axis. The\ngray is when you're presenting these\nobjects. And according to 20th century\nmodel, you have a neuron. This is a\nsingle neuron here that responds most to\nthe padlock responds um spikes at a\nmedium level to the flower and the least\nto the butterfly. And this neuron will\nalways give the same message every time\nit sees a butterfly or a padlock or a\nflower. Never changes. And you might\nfind some other neurons that just keep\ntrack of the order of the objects.\nThey're pure some neurons that will\nrespond more when things appear first\nand less when things appear second.\nOther neurons that do the opposite.\nThat's what the 20th century model\npredicted. We did this experiment and\nwhat we found instead was these mixed\nselectivity multifunctional neurons.\nMany experiments have been done since in\nthe past 20 years or so. And what you\nfind is you find neurons are\nmultipplexing combinations of factors.\nSo this neuron we I've illustrated here\nis responding most to the padlock and\nleast to the butterfly. Most spikes to\nthe padlock and least spikes to the\nbutterfly when the but when when those\nobjects appear first. But when when\nthose objects appear second, they show\ndifferent patterns of spiking. Now this\nneuron is spiking most to the butterfly\nand least to the padlock. And you see\ndifferent combinations of these factors,\nthese neurons seemingly giving different\nmessages in diff in different contexts.\nAnd because they spike at different\nobjects in different orders, different\ncontexts, these neurons are doing this\nmultipplexing of different factors. And\nit this gives them flexibility. It means\nthey're spiking is context dependent.\nThese neurons are doing different\nfunctions in different contexts. And if\nyou had one word to describe cognition,\nit would be context dependent behavior.\nflexibility. Our brains don't do the\nsame thing every time to the same input.\nWe're not like thermostats. We behave\ndifferently in restaurants than we might\nat a picnic. We we we we u behave\ndifferently when we're sitting down to a\nlecture versus a concert hall. Our our\nbehavior is all context dependent. And\nthat's what cognition is all about. And\nthese neurons seem to be the embodiment\nof that cognitive flexibility, that\ncontext dependent behavior of cognition.\nAnd this skin this makes them\nmultifunctional. And what my colleagues\nMadi Regati and Safano Fusi did using a\ndata collected by Melissa Warden who's\nin my laboratory is they built\ncomputational models showing this mixed\nselectivity property is critical for\ncognition. It gives the brain more\ncomputational horsepower. They form a\nnonlinear highdimensional computational\nspace that allows the brain to solve\nmore complex problems. And their\nflexibility allows the brain to learn\nthings really quickly. And they increase\nthe storage capacity of the brain\nbecause rather than all your memories\nand knowledge being stored in a few\nspecialized neurons, they're distributed\nacross many multifunctional neurons\nwhich makes the brain pretty much\ncapacity unlimited.\nBut this leads us to our biggest\nchallenge. How does the brain control\nsuch a complex system with overlapping\nnetworks and these multifunctional mix\nselectivity neurons that change their\nmembership in different networks\ndepending on the situation at hand? How\ncan the brain do that? And this is a\nchallenge because we are again our\nbrains don't just respond to inputs to\nthe out from the outside world. We have\ncontrol over our own brains. We take\ncharge of our own thoughts. We don't\ndon't just react to inputs like a\nthermostat or like AI does. by way\nthat's what AI does. AI just responds to\ninputs. It has no internal mild internal\nmonologue like we do. We act differently\ndepending on the situation. This is the\ncontext dependent behavior I was just\ntelling you about. And we make goals and\nset plans. I can choose what goal I want\nto reach in the future and make plans to\nget there and then ignore things in the\noutside world that count that that\ncounteract that plan in order to get to\nmy goal. And we do this flexibly to\nnavigate a fast-paced world.\nIt seems impossibly complex to build a\ncontrol system that works by\nconnectionism. Connectionism may work\nfine for storing information in the\nbrain, for baking information into the\nbrain, but in order to do all this\nbut in order to do all this\ncomputation allows us to take control of\nour own thoughts. How does that work if\nthe brain only works by connections,\nright? It would require on the-ly\nsubsecond control of gazillions of\nconnections, gazillions of synapses\nbetween a gazillion neurons. And that\njust seems computationally intractable.\nSo what's the solution? A number of us\nincluding our laboratory have come to\nthe conclusion that that the electric\nfields are the solution to this problem.\nWhat we call brain waves. Brain waves\nare rhythmic fluctuations in the\nelectric field surrounding neurons. When\nneurons spike, of course, they're\nexisting in this electrical environment.\nWhen they spike, they cause ripples in\nthe electrical fields around them. and\nyou get enough spiking, you get enough\nripples in the rhythmic fluctuations in\nthe electric fields and they turn around\nand they influence the spiking. A lot of\nyou may be familiar with with brain\nwaves. There's here's a recording here\non the left is a cartoon showing EEG\nscalp recordings from the human scalp.\nAnd you get you get a range of fre the\nsquiggly lines you see on an EEG reflect\na summation of of um a variet a wide\nband of of of of rhythmic oscillations\nin the brain and they're grouped into\nfrequency bands loosely associated with\ndifferent behavioral cognitive states.\nSo when your brain is giving high\nfrequencies like 30 hertz and above\ngamma means you're awake and alert. Next\ndown beta I'll talk about beta. This is\nwhen your mind is concentrating. when\nyour brain is concentrating. I'll talk\nabout that in a moment. And also alpha.\nAnd then you get down to lower\nfrequencies and now you're more relaxed.\nEventually you get to delta low\nfrequencies and that's when you're\nsleeping or anesthetize, which I'll also\nshow you in a minute. So we know that\nthese these um oscillations, these\nelectric field oscillations, brain waves\ncorrelate pretty well with cognitive\nstate and consciousness.\nAnd they were the first electrical\nsignal measured from the brain before we\ncould had the technology record\nindividual neurons.\nBut when the focus in the mid in the in\nuh mid 20th century shifted to neurons\nand connectism, brain waves were\ndismissed as non-functional. Kind of\nlike the humming of a car engine. They\ndon't make the engine run. These these\nelectrical oscillations, they don't make\nthe brain run. There is a byproduct of\nof the of the um of the brain running.\nNow um first of all anybody who\nunderstands basic electromagnetic theory\nknows that can't be true. If the neurons\nexist in this electrical environment and\ntheir spiking is changing that\nelectrical environment it's going to\nhave an influence on on um sp on on\nspiking. But also I'm here to say that\nwe need to banish the word epiphenomenon\nfrom neuroscience specifically in\nscience in general because whenever I\nhear the word epiphenomenon that's what\npeople said about this mean by\nnon-functional. Brain waves are\nepifenomenal. When I hear the word\nepiphen whenever someone says\nepiphenomenon I hear doesn't fit my\nomenon I hear doesn't fit my\ntheory. Okay? You know be and if your\ntheory is not explaining all the\nis not explaining all the\nobservations then the your theory is\nfalling short. It's not that the\nobservations are irrelevant. Saying the\nobservations are things are\nthings are\nnon-functional or epifenomenal is an eg\ncrutch to dismiss ideas that don't fit\nyour hypothesis. So we got to banish\nthat from from from neuroscience\nparticularly because we've only\nscratched the surface in how the brain\nworks. And again we now know this is not\ntrue. One way we know this is not true\nis work I've done uh in my my lab with\nin collaboration with Emmy Brown's\nlaboratory where we're studying how\ngeneral anesthesia affects the brain.\nNow it may be um a little disturbing you\nknow because anesthesia has been around\nsince I believe 1869. Etherdome over\nhere at MGH. I believe it's 1869 around\nthere. Um where the first demonstration\nof med medical anesthesia was given. Um\nthere's been this no doctors for all\nthis time doctors have really not known\nwhy anesthesia makes you unconscious.\nThey just know it works. It's like a lot\nof things in medicine. It works. We\ndon't know why. So we use it. And it was\nthought that anesthesia just kind of\nshut off your cortex. May just zero out\nyour cortex. Hit the off button at your\ncortex. And we found in starting these\nstudies about 10 years ago, this is\nabsolutely not true. What general\nanesthesia does, it doesn't turn off\nyour cortex. It it dramatically alters\nthe brain wave dynamics. So here's a\nrecording of what's called local field\npotentials. These are essentially\nelectric field recordings from inside\nthe the brain, inside the skull. And\nthat's we're seeing these colored these\nare uh four different areas of the\ncortex. These two areas in the top are\nthe frontal cortex, the front of your\nbrain, the executive part of your brain.\nThis is the parietal cortex in the\nmiddle of your cortex and back here STG\nis is primary auditory cortex. So\nsensory cortex. So we're we're\nbracketing sensory to frontal cortex\nhere. And these are electric field\nrecordings on the top and the bottom are\nthe spikes of individual neurons\nrecorded from those same electrodes. And\nwhat you see in the conscious awake\nstate is a lot of high frequency\nchatter. A lot of stuff is going on.\nThere's a lot of uh waves superimposed\non top of waves as all these waves do\ndifferent things. So you see a lot of\nhigh frequency low amplitude chatter and\na lot of spiking going on. It's very\nvery very busy and complicated complex.\nThen once we anesthetize the animal with\na commonly used anesthetic called\npropall we then find that that this\nshifts the brain to lower frequency a\nlower frequency band to to to 30 hertz\nand to mainly 20 hertz and below mainly\ncentered around delta one time a second.\nSo your brain shifts to these low\nfrequency oscillations. You can see\nhere, here's the high frequency chatter\nwhen you're conscious. Now the the\nelectric fields are now doing this slow\nfrequency almost like a slowwave sleep\nkind of thing. And the spiking activity\nin different parts of cortex are now\nlining up to these slowwave dynamics.\nThey were lined up to the high frequency\nstuff here. We just couldn't sort them\nout at least at first glance because\nthere's a lot of fre lower and higher\nfrequencies embedded in one another\nharmonizing one another in the conscious\nsituation. But now that most of the\nfrequencies have been replaced by slow\nfrequencies, we can see it effect\n, we can see it effect\nspiking activity from individual neurons\nstrongly phase locks to different um\nparts of of these low frequency waves.\nAnd the other thing anesthesia does is\nit seems to scramble the alignment of\nthe brain waves. Okay. So before in in\nthe awake state all these brain waves\nare highly synchronous and the peaks\ntend to line up one another because your\nyour brains your cortex is talking to\none another and when peaks of um of\nwaves mean then the the is a highly\nexcitable state and troughs are are low\nenergy states. So that's how cortical\ncommunication works. When when waves are\nin sync with one another, the neurons\nare excitable at the same time. And then\nwhen they're and then they're in low\nenergy states at the same time. So they\ncan talk to one another because they're\nthey're in high energy states, their\nhigh energy states are synchronous. But\nafter anesthesia, these waves become\nmisaligned. They become almost 180\ndegrees out of phase of one another. So\nnow when one set of neurons is in\nexcitable state, another set of neurons\nis a low energy state. And you're\nessentially fragmenting cortex and\nbreaking apart communication. And you\ncan see that here. Here is the spiking\nactivity from different areas. And\nwithin an area, the spikes line up, but\nyou see the spikes are now misaligned\nacross the different cortical areas. So\nthat's what anesthesia does to your\nbrain. It doesn't shut off your cortex.\nIt misaligned and fragments the uh the\nthe brain waves.\nNow, we did this first study. We did\nthis with propall one common anesthetic.\nWe've since then branched off of\ndifferent anesthetics because medical um\npractice uses a variety of different\nanesthetics. So we did too. And what we\nfound is something kind of I think is\nkind of remarkable. We're finding a\nuniversal signature of unconsciousness.\nWe saw these same effects with\nanesthetic doses of three different\ndrugs that have different molecular\nactions. Propol, which I just told you\nabout, ketamine, anesthetic doses of\nketamine and dexatonine. All these\nthings make you unconscious and they all\nact on different molecular receptors in\ndifferent systems in your brain,\ndifferent cells in your brain, but they\ncells in your brain, but they\nall do the same thing to the brain\nwaves. Now, if you think about that,\nthat means we're seeing a convergent\nlevel effect at the brain wave level\nthat can't be seen at the more\nreductionist level. So, to my\nreductionistic colleagues who say, you\nic colleagues who say, you\nknow, this brain wave stuff is just a\nhumming of the car engine, we can\nexplain how all these different\nanesthetics um have the same effect\nmaking you unconscious. And this in\nprinciple cannot be explained on the\nreductionistic level. So a strong\nargument for function. And the other we\nknow we also know from a large body of\nwork is that these brain waves have a\ndirect influence on on spiking activity\nin cortex and in fact all over your\nbrain not just cortex. So if this buoy\nhere is a spike in in your uh in the in\nyour cortex, the spiking activity rolls\nthe waves and the waves begin to knock\nthe buoy up and down. This is it's a\ntwo-way street. is birectional. It's\ninevitable because of basic\nelectromagnetic theory. And so brain\nwaves are made of the same stuff,\nspikes, changes in voltage levels, just\non a longer time scarger spatial and\nlonger time scale. And that means they\nexert a strong influence on when neurons\nspiking cortex. It's kind of like\noverlaying powerful radio waves onto a\ntelegraph system with the waves\nmodulating the impulses and wires. I\nknow I'm probably speaking on a very\nelemental level to this particular\ngroup, but to a lot of people who\nhaven't thought about these waves\nbefore, this kind of stuff is uh can be\nnew to them. So, here's a crowd here\ndoing the wave. You see the the wave is\nmoving from right to left across the\nscreen. What your brain does is this\ntoo. If these pe individual people in\nthe crowd are individual neurons, what\nwe see all over cortex, in fact all over\nthe brain, your cerebellum, subcortical\nareas, even primitive brain structures\nlike your youractory bulb, you see the\nongo you see neurons spiking in\nsynchrony to peaks of ongoing uh uh\nbrain waves. You see that here? Here's\nthe brain waves going on. Your brain's\ndoing the wave here. And spikes tend to\noccur. They phase lock to high energy\nstates of the waves. Okay?\nNow for the last 10 years or so, our\nlaboratory has amassed quite a bit of\nevidence showing that there's now the\nknow it's a mistake to to to assign\nspecific functions to individual\nfrequencies or frequency bands because\nthat's like saying a electrical impulse\nhas a certain function. It doesn't. It\ndepends on the circuit which is embedded\nin. But we're finding a general divide\nof function between higher frequencies\nand mid mid to lower frequencies. And\nwhat seems what what this evidence\nsuggests is that bottom up incoming\nsensory information which is associated\nwith high energy states in your brain,\nlots of spiking activity of neurons.\nThat's also associated with high\nfrequency brain waves that feed sensory\ninformation forward from the back of\nyour brain where it's first processed\nforward in your brain to your executive\nparts of your brain, the front of your\nbrain. So that's so when you when you\nsee something, when you hear something,\nwhen you're touched, there's a lot of\nspiking going on your sensory cortex,\nthat's riding on top of these high\nfrequency gamma waves, 30 Hz and above\nwaves, feeding information forward in\nwaves in your cortex. At the same time,\nin your cortex. At the same time,\nyour executive frontal cortex, which is\nwhat takes charge of your brain, it's\nfeeding back signals in the opposite\ndirection that that provide that\nexecutive control. And those signals are\nat a lower to mid-frequency band, alpha,\nbeta, 10 to 25 hertz. And we've shown\nthat they have an inhibitory influence.\nThey suppress they reduce energy on the\non these excitatory gamma signals. Okay?\nAnd that allows your brain to control\nwhat you pay attention to. It allows\nyour brain to filter out the bulk of\nsensory information. If your brain tried\nto process all the sensory information\nflooding into it right now, it would be\noverwhelmed because your brain doesn't\nhave that capacity. And that's what you\nsee in autism, by the way. You see the\nsensory overload. Well, these we've\namassed evidence showing these top down\nthese alpha beta control signals having\nthis inhibitory influence on these\nexcitatory signals feeding forward can\nprovide that filtering that prevents\nsensory overload and allows attention\nand executive control over the brain.\nNow your cortex has multiple layers.\nYour cortex is kind of like an onion.\nAnd we know from the anatomy that the\nsuperficial, the outer layers of cortex\nare the ones that are supposed to feed\nforward sensory information from the\nback of the brain to the front of the\nbrain. And the deep layers are the ones\nthat feed back information anatomically.\nWe know for long time now, half a\ncentury more, that the deep layers are\nthe ones feeding back information. So\nthese these rhythms should in fact map\nonto these layers of cortex. Well, in\nfact, they do, or else I probably\nwouldn't be talking about it. We've mass\nevidence and and developed a model where\nwe show that the feedback information\ncarried by alpha beta is feeding back\ninformation in cortex and that has an\ninhibitory influence on the gamma being\nand spiking being fed forward, sensory\ninformation being fed forward in the\nsuperficial layers of cortex.\nAnd I mentioned this because we've we\nfirst developed this this uh found made\nthis discovery in the frontal cortex.\nWe've since since branched out and\nstudied all over cortex and we saw the\nsame motif gamma feed forward bottom up\nsensory alpha beta um feedback ex\nexecutive control we've seen the same\ntheme all over cortex 20 plus cortical\nlayers and in four different species and\nwhen you see something this common and\nthis ubiquitous across cortex and across\nspecies you know it's doing something\nfundamental to cortical function\nand here's the way it works. And here's\nhow can I can I ask a question? Uh so uh\nin the previous slide or two slides ago\num I think the one before this uh yeah\nso I think uh what you uh said here is\nthat the the waves and the spikes are\nphase loft right?\n>> Yeah.\n>> Uh and the next slide uh you showed that\nUh and the next slide uh you showed that\nuh uh they have this sort of uh\ninhibitory effect. The waves have\ninhibited effect on the spiking\ned effect on the spiking\nactivity. So that means that they cannot\nbe faced off like they there has to be\nsome sort of temporal separation between\nthe\n>> well there's a lot of electrical there's\na lot of electrical influences going on\nthat that's that that's beyond spiking.\nOkay spiking your average cortical\nneuron only spikes about 10 to 15 hertz\nand it gives little bursts of spiking\nthen it's quiet most time little burst\nof spiking. So much of the activity\ngoing on in your cortex is actually\nelectrical waves which are happening\n100% of the time. So a lot of those\ninfluences are happening independ\nindependent of spiking.\n>> Thank you.\n>> Can I ask another question?\nCan I ask another question?\n>> Uh I if if it's really important yes but\nUh I if if it's really important yes but\nbut if I keep getting interruptions then\nwe're\n>> okay I will ask later.\n>> Yeah please ask for later. Otherwise you\nYeah please ask for later. Otherwise you\nknow you when you give a talk somewhere\nyou time at a certain time and then if\nyou get interruptions then you go long\nand if you don't and if you don't get\ninterruptions then you go short. So I'm\nnot if you have to something something\nis really unclear please stop me. But\nother than that, I I hope we can save\nquestions for the end, please.\nBut thank you for your interest.\nOkay. So, here's how it works. Um, and\nhere's how we're going to how these this\nthis idea of these these gamma and beta\num influences can explain this prop. We\nexplain this property of big selectivity\nI told you about earlier. We incorporate\nthis model called spatial computing. And\nthe idea is these alpha beta are having\nthis inhibitory influence on spiking\nactivity in cortex and they act as a\nnegative network space that the brain\nuses as a coding dimension. So\nessentially what gamma gamma and spiking\nis kind of like spray paint spraying\nenergy into into your cortex from the\noutside world sensory information. And\nthese alpha beta signals act like\nstencils that prevent neurons from\nspiking. And as a result, the spiking um\num being um associated with sensory\ninformation can only be expressed in\ncertain parts of your cortex, not\neverywhere. And your brain controls\nthese alpha beta um influences like\nstencils to control where your brain\ncortex can become activated and it uses\nas a computational tool. So explain in\nterms of mixed selectivity. Remember we\nhad these neurons that show this context\nnonlinear\num context dependent spiking where a\nneuron will show one pattern of\nselectivity for these objects in one\ncontext first and another um pattern of\nselectivity to these objects spiking to\nthese objects in another context that\ncan be explained by these alpha beta\nstencils. The idea is there's one alpha\nbeta stencil a pattern that corresponds\nto the operation of being first and as a\nresult these neurons can't spike and\nonly these neurons can spike to the\nbutterfly if that's the thing that\nhappens to appear first. And then you\nhave another pattern that corresponds to\nthe operation the context of being\nsecond. And now only these neurons can\nrespond. These neurons that are not\nbeing inhibited only they can respond to\nthe padlock. and you just change the\ndifferent objects and you get different\npatterns of neurons corresponding to the\ndifferent being allowed to respond to\nthe different objects in different\ncontexts and that's how you get this\ncontext nonlinear dependent behavior. So\nnonlinear dependent behavior. So\nthe alpha beta patterns control which\nneurons can spike in the different\nbehavioral contexts\nand this results in neurons with this\ncontext dependent spiking and all the\ncomputational benefits of mix\nselectivity.\nSo why why so what this brings us to is\nthe idea that brain waves are ideal for\ncontrol and organization your cortex for\nexerting this top down control over over\ncortex wave functions are simple and\nefficient imagine that I want to control\nall these neurons in my brain in order\nto do something like pay attention\nprocess what a speaker is saying whatnot\nhow do you how do you do how do you do\nthat you can't do it by this\nconnectionism model as I mentioned\nearlier because connectionism\nwould require that we shift around\nconnections constantly induce. We have\nto change around all the connections in\norder to get these context dependent\nneurons. That seems computationally\nintractable. However, wave functions are\nsimple and efficient. Rather than\ncontrolling the individuals one by one,\nyou can use a wave to guide an entire\ngroup. and try to if these if these uh\npeople in this crowd here are individual\nneurons in my cortex I can produce this\nwave pattern under the old hypothesis\nthe connectionism by trying to tell each\nindividual person what to do but if you\nthrow this wave function across the\ncrowd now you get a simple function that\ncontrols the crowd and makes or\norganized behavior\nand sure enough your brain does this all\nthe time so these oscillations these\nelectrical waves I'm talking about\nthey're not just jumping up and down in\na like a like a standing wave, like a\njump rope. They form patterns that\ntravel and move across your cortex, much\nlike fans doing the wave in a stadium.\nSo, here's a recording from the frontal\ncortex of a non-human primate. And what\nit shows is an array of electrodes. The\narrays are separated by about a\nmillimeter or two. Each of the squares\nis a different electrode in in the\nfrontal cortex of the animal. And what\nthe colors are are electric voltage\nvalues relative to a reference\nelectrode.\nAnd this this is raw unprocessed data.\nAnd what you can see is the electrical\nvoltages are forming this rotating wave\nthat's rotating counterclockwise\nacross the array.\nSo much like much like the um a stadium\ncrowd can organize using waves, your\nbrain your brain is or organizing itself\nusing waves. These waves, these\noscillations aren't like pingpong balls\nbouncing around your cortex randomly.\nThey're highly highly organized. And\nwhenever you see organization in the\nbrain, organization equals function.\nFunction invariably follows from\norganization because or organ\norganization means predictability.\nmeans predictability.\nAnd waves are also natural way produced\nnot just simple organization like this\nto produce complex organization. And for\na metaphor for that, here's a a video of\ngrains of sand on a speaker. And when\nyou play different musical notes, you\nget you get the the sand forms different\npatterns. Now, obviously, I'm not\ntalking about shifting around neurons in\nyour cortex. But think of the sound\nwaves as electrical brain waves,\nelectrical field waves. I mean, like uh\nthey're the same physics, waves are\nwaves. And the sand instead is spiking\npatterns of individual neurons.\nNow, what your brain needs to do to\norganize, it needs to somehow control\nall these neurons. So, they're doing\nsomething in an organized way. Imagine\ntrying to make these patterns, this\norganization here. Imagine trying to\nmake this organization\nby organizing the sand grain by grain.\nIt just be possibly complicated. But\norganization is a natural outcome of the\ninfluence of wave patterns. You have\nwave patterns, they form, they create\ninterference patterns, and you get you\nget this natural organization that falls\nout of it. So this is basic physics that\nevolution could exploit.\nAnd for further um demonstration of this\nof this for a demonstration of this\nprinciple, here's a recent paper um we\npublished LA last year where we show a\ndirect connection between these\ntraveling waves are rotating around the\ncortex and changing spiking patterns in\ncortex. Now what I'm showing here is not\n. Now what I'm showing here is not\nelectrical field waves anymore. Not I'm\nnot showing brain waves. I'm showing\npatterns of neural spiking from 200\nindividually recorded neurons of sorry\n200 simultaneously recorded neurons but\n200 individual neurons and what it shows\nis something called subspace coding. Now\nwhat subspace coding is it's a measure\nof the var of shared variance of the\nspiking patterns. Now if I record from\n200 neurons we did record from 200\nneurons I can create a 200dimensional\nspace to explain how these neurons are\nspiking. That's self-evident. It's\nself-descriptive. 200 neurons. Each\nneuron has his own vector. And the\nspiking is the distance along the\nvector. Bob's your uncle. You can do\nthat. But with subspace coding, we ask\nthe question, how many dimensions do I\nactually need to explain what these 200\nneurons are doing? And it could be 2,000\nneurons. How many dimensions do I need\n. How many dimensions do I need\nto explain what these 200 neurons are\ndoing? And it turns out you can explain\nthem what these neurons are doing in\njust three dimensions. Just three\ndimensions.\nAnd what that means is that spiking in\ncortex is highly coordinated. It's not\nlike insects buzzing chaotically in the\nin the night sky. Cortical spiking is\nmore like a murmmoration of birds. Birds\nflocking in the sky together in a highly\norganized fashion.\nThat's what spiking actually is in\ncortex. Highly organized. Now you guys\nno doubt get to where I'm going with\nthis. How do you produce this kind of\norganization? Well, you can throw a wave\nacross it, right? That's what I've been\narguing. Well, that's exactly what we\nfound. We this we when we record from\nthe same electrodes that we record this\nspiking activity showing the this highly\norganized movement of spiking patterns,\nwe see traveling waves rotating around\nthe around the surface of cortex. So\ntraveling so spiking activity rotate\nI'll explain what the rotation is in a\nmoment. These spiking patterns are\nmoving around this computational space\nused to represent how spiking is\nchanging in cortex and we find a\ncorrespondence of a wave moving across\nthe surface of cortex. Now brief\nexplanation this is a working memory\ntask and what we're looking at is the\nmemory delay the task where the where\nthe non-human primate has to hold one of\nfour objects in working memory in mind\nover the short memory delay. And what\nthe four colors represent are the four\ndifferent objects the animal's holding\nin mind. And you see separation between\nthe lines, which means that the spiking\npatterns are conveying information about\nwhich object the animal's holding in\nworking memory. Okay. Now, what's\nhappening at time zero in the middle of\nthe delay? We're distracting the animal.\nWe're showing we're trying to distract\nthe animal by showing it flashing a\npicture on the screen trying to knock it\noff its game. And that works about the\nknocks the animal's performance down.\nmakes the animal forget about 10 to 15%\nof the time. So, what's happening at\ntime zero? We're distracting the animal.\nAnd what you see is the neurons are\nbeing knocked out of where they should\nbe by the distraction\nand then something in the brain is\ngradually steering the neuron patterns\nback to where they were before. So, this\nrotating pattern here is a recovery from\nthe distraction.\nAnd we see these rotating. So these\nrotating waves in cortex are we think\nare are producing you see a direct\ncorrespondence producing this recovery\nfrom distraction.\nNow let me emphasize here that what\nwe're seeing here is a is a we're\nmapping a mathematical construction of\nneural computation that in principle\ndoesn't have to have any relationship\nwhatsoever to anything happening on the\nmapped on the surface of your cortex.\nBut it does. we'd see a correspondence\nbetween a mathematical construction of\nneural spiking and and a physical\nmovement of waves across the surface of\ncortex. And what that suggests to me is\nsomehow these waves are actually\ninvolved in computation in neural\ncomputation.\nAnd sure enough, waves can perform\ncomputation. You don't need digital\ncomputers digit perform digital\ners digit perform digital\ncomputation to do computation.\nation to do computation.\nIn fact, analog computation has been\naround for thousands of years. Digital\nis a bit of a an engineering\nconvenience, a bit of a detour. And what\nyou see here is I've illustrated analog\ncomputing by showing addition and\nsubtraction using two sine waves. Here's\none wave in blue moving um left to\nright. Another um um wave in this amber\norange like color moving uh right to\nleft. And the dotted line shows what\nhappens when you sum the two waves\ntogether. And if you sum it just this\none, there's a space here on the on the\nuh x axis and amplitude in the y\namplitude on the y- axis. If we sum\nright here, we could see we're doing\naddition subtraction just by the waves\ncoming together. Okay, so how the waves\ninteract models the equation. I've\nmodeled addition and subtraction by just\nhaving two simple slide waves come\nstraight at one another.\nAnd\nall the values are car all the values I\nmight want to add and subtract are\ncarried in carried in different parts of\nthese two of this blue and amber\ntraveling wave. Right? So when the waves\ninteract the entire equation all the\naddition subtraction across all these\ndifferent values all the addition\nsubtraction across all the space all\nhappens simultaneously you get pure\nparallel computation inherently parallel\ncomputation whereas digital is\ninherently sequential.\nAnd this is just one dimension and one\nfrequency.\nOkay, your brain could do this across\nmultiple frequencies anywhere from one\nhertz to 100 hertz and can do it in\nthree dimensions. That's a lot of space\nto do a lot of complex computation.\nAnd this isn't a conjecture. You could\ndo complex math with analog computation.\nThere's many modern examples of this,\nbut one example from hundred years ago\nwas MIT's own Vanir Bush, right across\nthe street from where I'm sitting right\nnow, built an analog differential\nanalyzer that solved 18 variable\ndifferential equations using wheels and\ndiscs. Wheels and discs and waves are\nthe same thing. And what he did is he\nset up the wheels and disc to model\nwhich differential equation he wants to\ncalculate. And then when he turns the\ncrank the whole equation gets to sol\nsolved in parallel. So the setup time\nthe main time here was setting up the\nwheels and disc to model the equation.\nBut the computation takes place\ninstantaneously. In the brain we don't\nhave to set up wheels and disc. We can\njust have waves are flexible. We we can\nmodel equations on on the on the fly and\ndo parallel computing when waves come\ntogether. And analog computing as I've\nhinted at is a huge advantage over\ndigital. Analog computing is is a way\nvastly more efficient. It's\ninformationrich. You know the real world\nis made up of continuous signals. But if\nyou want to do digital computation then\nyou got you got to arbitrarily divide up\nthe world into ones and zeros which is\nalready highly inefficient. But again\nthe real advantage is that that analog\ncomputation is purely parallel. When the\nwaves interact, all the variables\ncompute simultaneously. Digital\ncomputation is sequential. That both\nation is sequential. That both\nthese things are a huge advantage over\nover digital computation.\nThink about AI. AI based on digital\ncomputation and this connection as a\nmodel consumes enormous amounts of\nenergy. They're building nuclear power\nplants to to um to power AI.\nThey're building nuclear power plants to\npower AI. And here's a graph showing the\ntotal output of the of produced by the\nstate of Virginia alone is about a\nquarter of its goes to these AI um\npowered data centers which are causing\nbrownouts and neighborhoods around them\nand stuff. By 2030 is projected as much\nas half of the power that one that\nVirginia produces will be devoted to AI\ndata centers. Okay. the projection AI\nprojection power demands outstrip the\nenergy the ability of the energy supply\nto provide it in the future.\nThis is not the way biology works.\nBiology does not solve problems by\nthrowing huge amounts of energy at it. A\npretty good definition of life is local\nreverses in entropy using as little\nenergy as possible.\nEvolution favors energy efficiency and\nyour far more capable brain runs on just\n20 watts of power. The power of a dim\nlight bulb and your brain is more\npowerful than any AI system out there.\nSo clearly our brains are doing\nsomething different. And I think it's\nnot connectism and it's not not digital\nlogic like comput computations. It's\nwave-based organization and wave-based\nanalog computation. So in summary,\nbrains we I think AI like connectionism\nconnectionism is not wrong and AI is not\nwrong to use connectionism. It's a great\nway to store information. Okay, great\nway to store information in the long\nin the long\nterm. But expressing information and\ncomputing it may be a whole different\ngame especially for the high level\ncomputation required by um you know\nintelligence and cognition.\nWaves operate on the right scale. You're\nnot don't have to worry about\nindividuals and those you're you're\nyou're you're operating on whole\nsections or crowds of neurons\nsimultaneously by a wave function which\nis a simple function and they're\nmathematically easy way can gain control\nover a complex system and can they can\nperform highly efficient analog comp\nSo I want to leave you with the thought\nthat cognition and consciousness is not\ndigital or logic gate or connectionism.\nIt's analog\nanalog computation lets exist wave wave\npatterns in your brain. These wave\npatterns in the brain are patterns of\nthe brain are patterns of\nexcitation and inhibition. More energy\nless energy. That is how your brain\nworks. That's how your brain works.\nOkay. So what analog computation allows\nis one pattern of excitation, one wave\npattern in your cortex to come together\nand interact with another wave pattern\nand generate a third wave pattern, a\nbrand new wave pattern in a\ncomputationally principled predictable\nway. And if it's predictable and\nprinciple in that way, evolution could\ntake advantage of it.\nNow consciousness virtually every\nbiological theory of consciousness\nproposes that consciousness requires\nsomehow your cortex be unified create\nthis metaansemble meta network that\nunifies your cortex to create the\nunified experience of consciousness.\nd experience of consciousness.\nThat's what consciousness is. It's a\nunified experience. So somehow your your\nbrain has to do this but they're very\nvague on how exactly your brain does\nthis. Well, I want to suggest that when\nbrain wave patterns produced by analog\ncomputation, when wave patterns come\ntogether and produce new wave patterns\nusing analog computation, when these\nwave patterns become large and\norganized, large and organized enough to\nbind the cortex into a unified state,\nthe result is conscious experience. So,\nI thank you for your attention and I'm\nmore than happy to take questions now.\nThank you.\n>>\nWho want to go first?\nI have a I have a question\nthat was very interesting. Um, so you\nmentioned that the uh waves are a\nnatural way to produce complex\norganization. And so we've been seeing\ntraveling waves inside frog embryos, but\nalso between them. And I'm wondering if\nthese waves could play like a similar\nsimilar role in the brain during\ncognitive processing and maybe also do\nsome analog computation. And I'm\nwondering what your opinion is like what\ndoes this non-neural wave need to call\nit cognitive or brainike?\n>> Oh, I mean waves are are useful physics\nthat your brain could exploit for a wide\nvariety of reasons. And much like you're\nseeing in the frog embryo, you're\ndeveloping retina has ways moving across\nit. So before you can even see, there's\nthese ways that move across your retina\nthat allow the the retina to organize\nitself into into regular regular\npatterns. So yeah and I you know Michael\nhas shown that uh you know electric\nfields play a role in in um in\ndevelopment in uh in um so you know wave\nI I wouldn't say waves become conscious\nwave electrical\nbiological systems produce electrical\nfields and your nervous nervous systems\nwill naturally produce oscillations and\nwaves because your nervous system is\ncomposed of things called recurrent\nconnections. neurons loop back on\nthemselves like snakes eating their own\ntail and this happens on a short in a\nshort distance and also will cross long\ndistance in your cortex. So your whole\ncortex your whole nervous system is set\nup to produce these oscillations and\nit's just another thing that evolution\ncould exploit. So I think about the you\nknow very this probably happened very\nearly in in evolution. So probably you\nknow imagine your simplest nervous\nsystem all they're doing is responding\nto the outside world like a thermostat\nwhich means that the organization of the\nnervous system is depends on the outside\nworld. Then you get a bunch of neurons\nhooked together into a loop and now the\nner the the nervous system will begin\noscillating. So far all it's doing is\noscillating but right there there's an\nbut right there there's an\ninternal organization something separate\nfrom the outside world that evolution\ncould now exploit push around to do more\ncomplex stuff with. So I I have no doubt\nthat uh that um the um electric field\nwaves play a wide variety of roles in\nbiology not just in cognition.\n>> Hey uh thank you very much. I have a\nquestion. I want to relate this uh to\nphysics. So in physics uh we have a\nmagnet mechanical waves and they can\nform a very interesting behavior like uh\nstanding waves and uh and also uh so so\nI was wondering what's the difference or\nand dis uh uh similarity between these\nwaves in brain and uh and physical\nphysical waves. Yeah. Well, in the end\nwaves are are waves. I mean like they\nthey you see I mean you could do you\ncould do computation for example with\nmechanical discs and wheels and also you\nknow um sound waves and and electrical\nwaves. So in terms of the physics of I'm\nnot sure what you mean by the question I\nmean the same wave function describe\nelectrical waves as mechanical waves. So\nI'm not um sure what what\n>> yeah by the physics.\nSo I I mean I mean exactly the the\nmechanical waves because in in like if\nyou consider wave equation in physics\nthey they're not directional but uh in\nneuron uh on under my understanding it\nis directional. So\n>> yeah yeah I see what you're saying. Yeah\n>> I see what you're saying. Yeah.\nI see what you're saying. Yeah.\nInteresting. You know, in terms of brain\nfunction, you really wouldn't want a lot\nof standing waves in your brain because\nwhat it means is whole networks are\ngoing to be activated and deactivated\nlike in unison. What you want to see is\nyou want to see a lot of traveling\nwaves. Traveling waves are a great way\nto control um the computation and the\ntraveling way. So that so the electrical\nfield influences I should maybe I should\nhave mentioned this earlier but\nelectrical field influence one thing one\nthing they're very useful for is they\ntransmit influences around your cortex\n5,000 times faster than spiking but\ninterestingly the they form these\ntraveling waves. So these traveling\nwaves the peaks of the traveling waves\nyou know when you have an oscillating\nwave the peaks of them move around your\ncortex and they generally follow the\nanatomy of cortex and they generally\nmove at the speed of spiking and\nsynaptic transmission. So the peaks of\nthe waves are kind of moving around\nfollowing anatomy but then when\nsomething changed in the resonance of\nthe system all the changes all the\ninfluences like propagate\ninstantaneously in in in the surrounding\nuh circuits. So for the so and traveling\nwaves are useful for things like um\nagain there I'm giving you biological\nnot physical explanations but traveling\nare useful for things like if you want\nto bake information into your brain\nchange connections in your brain there's\nsomething called spike timing\nindependent plasticity. two neurons fire\nwithin a short temporal window of one\nanother then they increase their\nconnectivity their syn their synapses\nget stronger well traveling waves are a\ngreat way to do that because what the\ntra when many of these traveling waves\ndo as I mentioned is a lot of them are\nrotating in fact the bulk of the waves\nsome of them move across your cortex but\na lot of them rotate and rotating waves\nare a great way to induce synaptic\nplasticity because you can move the\ncenter of the rotation around the\nsurface of cortex and change that\nprecise\ntiming window for spike time dependent\nplasticity. You can move that window\naround in a parametric fashion. Did that\nanswer your question? I'm not a\nphysicist.\n>> Yeah, that this is very very very\ninteresting. Uh may I ask another\nquestion also inspired by physics. So\nyeah. So, so in in condes metaphysics uh\npeople studying uh studying uh large\nscale uh oscillation in a system they\ncall it phon uh it's a imaginary\nparticle that uh uh basically when you\nhave a global oscillation global wave\nyou can transform it into wave spa uh\ninto frequency space and it become a\nparticle I wondering if neuroscience is\ndoing the same thing.\n>> Well, uh yes and no. There are like uh\ntheories of uh consciousness that\ninclude like um quantum physics and and\nuh and um I wouldn't say it's the\nmainstream of neuroscience. Right now\nwe're me and uh uh several others are\nare are trying to you know shift the\nfocus of neuroscience. not shift but um\num draw more attention to these um\nnon-connectionist mechanisms that that\nare uh that we think play a major role\nin uh brain function. And back when I\nstarted selling this 20 years ago,\npeople people a lot of people thought it\nwas uh you know um why would you want to\nstudy waves when you could study\nneurons? And now people are uh you know\ngenerally people are coming around to\nit. But we haven't gotten to the uh the\num you know the quantum collapse kind of\nthing that although there is a quantum\ntheory of consciousness involving\nmicrotubules you might want might want\nto check out.\n>> Yeah. Thank you.\n>> Sure.\nUm would you mind calling on people?\n>> Yeah, Chris.\n>> Uh yeah, thank you. This was this was a\nUh yeah, thank you. This was this was a\nvery nice talk. I appreciate it. Um\non this topic of\nquantum effects,\nhow reproducible\nare the context changes\nthat you see with um sort of simple\nexperimentally controllable behaviors?\nUh, can you control an experiment well\nenough to get the same wave patterns\nmoving in the same way across a single\nbrain?\n>> You absolutely can. Yeah. I mean, I\nwouldn't be able to show you this effect\nif that wasn't true because all you\nknow, all the experimental work we do,\nit depends on reproducibility. We have\nto see the same thing across multiple\nrenditions, multiple trials of the same\ncontext. Otherwise, we wouldn't uh even\neven see these effects. But you can in\nfact do that. So you have the same\nbehavioral context. You see the same\nwave pattern every time or a similar\nwave pattern every time. That that it\n. That that it\nreally would be it really couldn't work\nany other way because you need this\nnegative cortical space negative um\nspace to be a computational dimension.\nYou got to have cons consistency and we\ndo see that consistency that you see it\nuh there's there's variability across\ncontext but consistency within a\ncontext.\n.\n>> Okay great. Um, so whenever um I am a at\nleast a part-time physicist,\nwhenever a physicist hears context, the\nnatural question is, is the context\neffect causal or non-causal?\nAnd um they're nice statistical tests\nfor determining whether the context\neffect is causal or non-causal. And\nroughly speaking, if you can\nreproducibly get context to interfere,\nyou can see non-causal context effects\nthat express\nby uh statistics\nof some other observable or observables\nthat overlap between context\n>> violating bells in equality. So you can\nget very sensitive tests of\n>> u the non causality of the context\neffects and I just wonder if your data\nare immunable to running that kind of\nstatistical test.\n>> Um yes we in fact do run those\ncontestical tests and we show the\ncausality going from the brain waves\ndown to the spiking neurons. So we've\ndone those analyses but also you can do\nit experimentally too. So not not work\nthat I've done but work other people\nhave done. For example, you do things\nlike you record from inside the brain\nand from outside the brain, you create a\nfluctuating electric field, one that has\nthe same strength and same frequency\nrange as as happens inside the brain.\nAnd when you record inside the brain,\nwhat you find is all the neurons are are\nare phase locked to to that fluctuating\nelectric field. So that's just one\nexample of many experiments that that's\na causal manipulation experimentally but\nyou can also do the math and show\ncausalities moving in in the electric\nfield the spiking direction too from the\nexisting data.\n>> Do you do you have any data that display\nviolations of Bell's inequality?\n>> I'm not I'm not a physicist and I'm not\na quantum physicist. I know what Bell\nI'm a I know what Bell's Bells is but\nI'm not a expert in it. I'm I'm a\nneuroscientist.\n>> Yeah, it' really be worth looking for\nthat.\nExperimental psychologists have been\nable to demonstrate\num very good statistics for violations\nof Bell's inequality on simple sort of\nlinguistic trial data. Uh so it's pretty\nclear that that\nbrains are using\nuh mutually interfering context to do\ncomputation\nuh even in civil kind of language games\nand it would be very cool if you could\nsee it in the kind of data that you can\ncollect and it sounds like it would be\nfairly straightforward. Well, I'll tell\nyou what. My my lab has a vast library,\na large library of of\nelectrophysiological data. We've\ncollected spiking neurons, electric\nfields, animals doing interesting\nbehaviors. I have a large library and we\nlove to share data. So, if um you have\nan interest in in taking a look, any of\nyou, anybody, write me and I'm happy to\nset up a collaboration. We're happy to\nshare our data with you. We do this all\nthe time.\n>> Well, thank you.\nsend\num I have a a question about your\nstencil idea. So the idea being the\nelectric fields as a act as a gating\nmechanism uh on the neurop right so a\ncouple of questions on that uh so the\nidea of stencil is something something\nthat's fixed or static right so how do\nwe imagine traveling waves implementing\nthat stencil the second question is who\nis generating that uh stencil is it a\ndifferent set of neurons than the one\nthat's being constrained\n>> so here's the so think of it um as the\nas the stencil is not static stencils\nbut moving stencils. Okay, that that's\nwhat the treers are. They're moving\nstencils moving across your cortex. Same\nconcept as the stencils, just stencils,\nstencils in motion. Now, who is doing\nthe the um organizing? That's the\ndeepest question, isn't it? And you know\num the way I think about it is that you\ndon't don't need so all the information\nyou need for for to engage in complex\ngoal directed behavior intelligent\nbehavior is baked into your brain's\nconnections and the way I think about it\nis that when neurons start spiking they\nexpress that information in the wave\npatterns then those wave patterns that\nare based on the information about goals\nyou know your desires your plans baked\ninto your brain they create a wave\npattern that reflects that stored\ninformation and input from the outside\nworld. Then those wave patterns come\ntogether and they create a new wave\npattern in a computationally principled\nway that's dependent on that on that the\ninitial wave patterns and that produces\na new pattern of thoughts and they could\nturn around and then by influencing\nspiking bake information um back into\nyour brain again. So the way I think\nabout this is that you don't need a\nhomunculus a little person in your brain\ninterpreting what's going on. You don't\nneed a you know neuroscientists like me\nwe we they we use down we use decoders\nall the time on our neural activity can\nI decode information from this activity\nand that's a very useful tool but some\nneuroscientists um there's this tacid\nassumption that something must be\ndecoding activity well the way I think\nabout it these wave patterns producing\nnew wave patterns are patterns of brain\nexcitation producing new patterns in a\ncomputationally principled way and you\ndon't need a homunculus. You don't need\na downstream decoder. It's just wave\npatterns producing wave patterns based\non the um on the um knowledge your brain\nalready has baked into it. So that's the\nway I think about the control happens.\nControl happens because your brain has\nthe um information needed to exert this\ncontrol and the wave patterns create\nthose control because it's based on that\ninformation stored in your brain.\nThat's all I got for for consciousness.\n>> Thank you. Um I have a question about\nthat. Um you're talking about\nconsciousness but what about memory?\n>> Is wave as wave contribute to memory to\nstoring or retrieving memory? Well,\ncertainly I mean this when those\ninformation is encoded memories are\nencoded in the connections in your brain\nand the synaptic weights much like AI\nand connectors themselves probably and\nwhen that information gets expressed by\nspiking it produces those wave patterns\nand that that wave pattern is now the\nmemory that you're now thinking about\nholding in your mind holding your\nconscious of. But then when they create\nnew wave patterns because the wave\npatterns have a downward influence on\nspiking and spiking changes the\nconnections of the brain they can now\nexer um store new memories in your\nbrain.\n>> Okay. So what kind what kind of speed I\ncan um uh expect from that kind of um\nmechanism of wave mechanism\n>> speed of encoding information of\n>> encoding driving.\nencoding driving.\n>> Yeah. Well, it's the same speed as the\nYeah. Well, it's the same speed as the\nspeed as spiking. All it is is another\nlevel of organization on top of the way\nwe traditionally thought about memories\nin terms of being expressed by spiking\nand induced by spiking. So, it's the\nsame dynamics. It's same time course,\nsame everything. It's just how the\neverything. It's just how the\ninformation is expressed at a higher\nlevel.\n>> Right? I'm trying to think about the the\nexperiment of reacting to a surprise or\nor break pressing the brakes on the car.\nuh um\n>> if you need to make a decision, see\nsomething and press the brakes, that's\ncouple of milliseconds and and to do\nthat what I understand you need pretty\nmuch a huge amount of speed in terms of\nthe system.\n>> Yep.\n>> And I I I don't know how if it's\nAnd I I I don't know how if it's\npossible to create that kind of speed.\n>> Uh sure it I mean, it's it's more\npossible to create it with waves than it\nis with spiking alone because the\nelectrical field includes move around\nyour brain 5,000 times faster than\nspiking. So, that produces a lot of uh\nthat's a lot of speed gain right there.\nBut the other thing to um if we're\ntalking about consciousness, which I\nthink is how we began this this\nquestion. Um first of all, when you put\nyour foot to break, that's an\nunconscious thing. A lot of what your\nbrain does is unconscious. Okay?\nConsciousness is often the story your\nbrain makes up to explain what it just\ndid. Consciousness is good for planning\nbehavior and for counter countermanding\nsomething stupid you you were about to\ndo. That's pretty much it. It takes\nabout half a second for your conscious\nfor you to be consciously aware of the\noutside world. Half a second. That's an\neternity. Everything you're consciously\naware of is already half a second in the\npast. So a lot of the stuff your brain\nis doing is unconscious. Lot a lot of\nthe decisions you're making are your\nunconscious decision your brain is\nmaking. And cautiousness is kind of the\nit's kind of the apex of this control\nsystem because it allows you to sit back\nand deliberate and plan but but it's not\nnecessary for a lot of complex behavior.\n>> Right. Okay. Thank you.\n>> But I'm sorry I have to run. I have to\nBut I'm sorry I have to run. I have to\ngo to a faculty meeting. But uh it was a\ngreat pleasure to talk to you guys. Um,\nthank you for the invitation.", + "fetched_at": "2026-06-22T04:40:43Z", + "source": "yt-dlp-vtt", + "clean_segments": [ + { + "start": 0.48, + "text": "um what I'll be talking about today, I'm" + }, + { + "start": 1.92, + "text": "a neuroscientist at at MIT and our lab" + }, + { + "start": 4.96, + "text": "has been um examining the role of" + }, + { + "start": 7.44, + "text": "electric field effects in uh in in um" + }, + { + "start": 10.719, + "text": "cognition and consciousness and it's" + }, + { + "start": 13.12, + "text": "electric fields are something that's" + }, + { + "start": 14.24, + "text": "been um it's a signal it's a mechanism" + }, + { + "start": 16.56, + "text": "that's been underststudied in" + }, + { + "start": 17.84, + "text": "neuroscience and we're trying to change" + }, + { + "start": 19.439, + "text": "that. So let me dive right in. So I" + }, + { + "start": 22.08, + "text": "think the the best way to tell you how" + }, + { + "start": 24.32, + "text": "our think where our thinking about the" + }, + { + "start": 26.24, + "text": "brain is right now is to tell you where" + }, + { + "start": 30.08, + "text": "we came from. So I'm going to give you a" + }, + { + "start": 31.439, + "text": "little bit of an historical overview of" + }, + { + "start": 33.36, + "text": "our how our thinking in the brain has" + }, + { + "start": 35.12, + "text": "changed in the past I don't know hundred" + }, + { + "start": 36.96, + "text": "years and then you'll you'll you'll have" + }, + { + "start": 39.12, + "text": "a better understanding of of where where" + }, + { + "start": 40.719, + "text": "we why we're thinking the way we do now." + }, + { + "start": 43.52, + "text": "So sorry let me get my screen going." + }, + { + "start": 46.0, + "text": "There we go. What is thought? Well we" + }, + { + "start": 48.559, + "text": "know thought is composed of neurons." + }, + { + "start": 50.559, + "text": "Neurons are brain cells. They connect to" + }, + { + "start": 53.12, + "text": "one another at junctions, connections" + }, + { + "start": 54.96, + "text": "called synapses. And they signal each" + }, + { + "start": 57.36, + "text": "other by brief electrical impulses that" + }, + { + "start": 60.16, + "text": "we call spikes. And I'll be referring to" + }, + { + "start": 61.92, + "text": "spikes for the rest of my talk in" + }, + { + "start": 63.44, + "text": "addition to electric field. But spikes" + }, + { + "start": 65.76, + "text": "are the electrical impulses from" + }, + { + "start": 67.6, + "text": "individual neurons like individual" + }, + { + "start": 69.68, + "text": "voices in a large crowd. And the idea is" + }, + { + "start": 72.96, + "text": "that the neurons signal one another by" + }, + { + "start": 75.04, + "text": "by um sending these spikes along uh um" + }, + { + "start": 78.88, + "text": "axons and dendrites. the connections and" + }, + { + "start": 81.439, + "text": "across synapses and that's what's" + }, + { + "start": 83.04, + "text": "illustrated here spiking activity the" + }, + { + "start": 85.439, + "text": "brain signaling all taking place by" + }, + { + "start": 87.119, + "text": "these spiking moving down the brain's" + }, + { + "start": 89.36, + "text": "connections and the brains have a lot of" + }, + { + "start": 91.92, + "text": "this stuff your cortex alone I'll be f" + }, + { + "start": 94.24, + "text": "since I'm interested in cognition and" + }, + { + "start": 95.92, + "text": "consciousness I'm uh going to focus" + }, + { + "start": 98.4, + "text": "mainly on the cortex today the cortex" + }, + { + "start": 101.119, + "text": "alone which is where a lot of the higher" + }, + { + "start": 102.799, + "text": "thinking in your brain goes on your" + }, + { + "start": 104.96, + "text": "cortex alone contains 20 billion neurons" + }, + { + "start": 108.0, + "text": "and they form uh 10 to the 14 synaptic" + }, + { + "start": 110.96, + "text": "connections. I don't know what number 10" + }, + { + "start": 113.36, + "text": "to the 14 is. Let's just call it a" + }, + { + "start": 115.2, + "text": "gazillion." + }, + { + "start": 117.28, + "text": "And at first, like um before the mid" + }, + { + "start": 120.0, + "text": "20th century, so late 1800s, early early" + }, + { + "start": 123.04, + "text": "uh uh early 1900s, um neurons were" + }, + { + "start": 127.36, + "text": "poorly understood and sometimes they" + }, + { + "start": 128.879, + "text": "were regarded as like mere build" + }, + { + "start": 130.8, + "text": "building blocks or scaffolding," + }, + { + "start": 133.599, + "text": "right? thought that that neurons were" + }, + { + "start": 135.92, + "text": "like the the somehow the stuff that" + }, + { + "start": 139.28, + "text": "constructs the brain, but they didn't" + }, + { + "start": 140.879, + "text": "seem to have any distinct function. And" + }, + { + "start": 142.959, + "text": "why is that? Well, you know, there's" + }, + { + "start": 144.56, + "text": "limitations to technology. Until about" + }, + { + "start": 146.4, + "text": "the 1950s, we didn't have the technology" + }, + { + "start": 148.8, + "text": "to eased on the spikes from individual" + }, + { + "start": 151.36, + "text": "neurons. And also, if you're going to" + }, + { + "start": 153.28, + "text": "study something as complex as the brain," + }, + { + "start": 154.959, + "text": "you got to start somewhere. You don't" + }, + { + "start": 156.319, + "text": "dive into the details immediately. You" + }, + { + "start": 159.2, + "text": "build up from the details by starting" + }, + { + "start": 160.879, + "text": "simple. And the simplest place to start" + }, + { + "start": 162.879, + "text": "is the brain's gross anatomy." + }, + { + "start": 166.319, + "text": "But by the 1950s, we developed a" + }, + { + "start": 168.239, + "text": "technology to study electrical spiking" + }, + { + "start": 169.92, + "text": "of individual neurons. And a major" + }, + { + "start": 172.16, + "text": "discovery was that neurons are not" + }, + { + "start": 173.84, + "text": "bricks or scaffolding. They're little" + }, + { + "start": 176.16, + "text": "information processing units." + }, + { + "start": 179.2, + "text": "And this is based on the Nobel prize the" + }, + { + "start": 181.2, + "text": "the watershed was the Nobel Prize" + }, + { + "start": 182.959, + "text": "winning work of Hub and Visel where" + }, + { + "start": 185.2, + "text": "what's shown here is for example they" + }, + { + "start": 187.2, + "text": "were recording from individual neurons" + }, + { + "start": 188.72, + "text": "in the visual cortex which is at the" + }, + { + "start": 190.72, + "text": "very back of your brain. It's sort of" + }, + { + "start": 192.159, + "text": "the first v stage of visual processing" + }, + { + "start": 194.959, + "text": "goes on in your cortex and they showed" + }, + { + "start": 198.0, + "text": "the subject different stimuli different" + }, + { + "start": 200.72, + "text": "pictures different features on on a" + }, + { + "start": 202.72, + "text": "screen. In this case, this individual" + }, + { + "start": 204.879, + "text": "neuron they're recording from happened" + }, + { + "start": 206.8, + "text": "to give off spikes at the site of this" + }, + { + "start": 210.959, + "text": "leftleaning line appearing at this" + }, + { + "start": 213.76, + "text": "particular location on the screen. So" + }, + { + "start": 216.0, + "text": "this neuron, this individual neuron is" + }, + { + "start": 217.519, + "text": "like a geiger counter for this one" + }, + { + "start": 219.28, + "text": "visual feature detecting that one visual" + }, + { + "start": 221.28, + "text": "feature. And other neurons detect" + }, + { + "start": 223.76, + "text": "detected other features like right" + }, + { + "start": 225.519, + "text": "leaning lines or squares or colors. And" + }, + { + "start": 228.319, + "text": "the idea was that other neurons spike at" + }, + { + "start": 230.08, + "text": "different things. So they detect other" + }, + { + "start": 231.519, + "text": "things. they're sending different" + }, + { + "start": 233.2, + "text": "messages" + }, + { + "start": 235.68, + "text": "and this led to the dominant model in" + }, + { + "start": 238.48, + "text": "the late 20th century of of the brain" + }, + { + "start": 241.519, + "text": "and that is connectionism." + }, + { + "start": 243.68, + "text": "Uh the cortex was thought to be wired" + }, + { + "start": 246.239, + "text": "like a giant telegraph system that" + }, + { + "start": 248.64, + "text": "combines signals. So the spikes travel" + }, + { + "start": 251.28, + "text": "down these telegraph like wires and" + }, + { + "start": 253.28, + "text": "neurons signal one another. These little" + }, + { + "start": 255.2, + "text": "information processing units signal one" + }, + { + "start": 257.359, + "text": "another like a giant telegraph system." + }, + { + "start": 260.0, + "text": "And this is captured here. If I get this" + }, + { + "start": 262.079, + "text": "right, here's here's the primary visual" + }, + { + "start": 264.8, + "text": "cortex at the back of the brain. And" + }, + { + "start": 266.96, + "text": "here's the um edge detectors like I" + }, + { + "start": 269.04, + "text": "showed you earlier at this first stage" + }, + { + "start": 270.88, + "text": "of visual processing. There's ner here's" + }, + { + "start": 272.96, + "text": "a visual scene here of these this kind" + }, + { + "start": 274.72, + "text": "of bent paper clip. And the idea was" + }, + { + "start": 277.04, + "text": "that individual neurons back in primary" + }, + { + "start": 279.12, + "text": "visual cortex detect different features" + }, + { + "start": 281.68, + "text": "of this uh scene. In this case, the" + }, + { + "start": 284.08, + "text": "simplest case is the simple line" + }, + { + "start": 286.56, + "text": "segments of different orientations." + }, + { + "start": 289.36, + "text": "And then those edge detectors combine to" + }, + { + "start": 291.28, + "text": "a second level of processing where they" + }, + { + "start": 293.28, + "text": "combine their activity to detectors of" + }, + { + "start": 295.68, + "text": "longer edges." + }, + { + "start": 297.84, + "text": "And then those longer edge detectors" + }, + { + "start": 299.919, + "text": "combine their signaling and you get" + }, + { + "start": 301.44, + "text": "corner detectors." + }, + { + "start": 303.44, + "text": "Then you combine more and more and" + }, + { + "start": 305.6, + "text": "eventually you get neurons that are that" + }, + { + "start": 308.08, + "text": "are only spike the whole images or whole" + }, + { + "start": 310.16, + "text": "things like faces or or hands and stuff" + }, + { + "start": 313.36, + "text": "stuff like that. And because there's 20" + }, + { + "start": 316.0, + "text": "billion neurons in your cortex, the idea" + }, + { + "start": 318.08, + "text": "was that if you combine combine, combine" + }, + { + "start": 319.84, + "text": "enough, you eventually get neurons and" + }, + { + "start": 322.08, + "text": "circuits specialized for peace, love," + }, + { + "start": 324.32, + "text": "and understanding. That's the way we" + }, + { + "start": 326.4, + "text": "thought about the brain in the 20th" + }, + { + "start": 327.6, + "text": "century. This this connectionism and" + }, + { + "start": 329.84, + "text": "this combining of signals into higher" + }, + { + "start": 331.84, + "text": "levels of specialization and complexity." + }, + { + "start": 334.72, + "text": "And this may be familiar to you because" + }, + { + "start": 336.479, + "text": "this is how AI kind of works. Large" + }, + { + "start": 338.96, + "text": "language models are trained on large" + }, + { + "start": 340.72, + "text": "data sets and they adjust their" + }, + { + "start": 342.639, + "text": "connections, their associations to" + }, + { + "start": 344.8, + "text": "capture statistical patterns in the" + }, + { + "start": 346.56, + "text": "data. This is where AI got this idea" + }, + { + "start": 349.28, + "text": "from from the from how we thought the" + }, + { + "start": 351.6, + "text": "brain worked." + }, + { + "start": 353.52, + "text": "But starting about the um turn of this" + }, + { + "start": 355.6, + "text": "century, a discovery challenged" + }, + { + "start": 357.6, + "text": "connectionism. The discovery of" + }, + { + "start": 359.84, + "text": "multifunctional neurons. These neurons" + }, + { + "start": 362.479, + "text": "rather than being selective for one" + }, + { + "start": 364.24, + "text": "thing indicated by these single colors" + }, + { + "start": 366.16, + "text": "here, these neurons in cortex, they" + }, + { + "start": 369.6, + "text": "combined different features in seemingly" + }, + { + "start": 373.44, + "text": "ways that didn't make sense from a from" + }, + { + "start": 375.28, + "text": "a neuron having a single function. Their" + }, + { + "start": 377.759, + "text": "spiking of these neurons reflected" + }, + { + "start": 379.28, + "text": "complex nonlinear combinations of" + }, + { + "start": 382.08, + "text": "different things in different" + }, + { + "start": 383.759, + "text": "situations." + }, + { + "start": 386.0, + "text": "Okay, as a result, these neurons were" + }, + { + "start": 388.319, + "text": "multifunctional. They didn't just do one" + }, + { + "start": 390.08, + "text": "thing and send one message. They sent" + }, + { + "start": 392.24, + "text": "different message in different" + }, + { + "start": 395.199, + "text": "And what that means is that cortex is a" + }, + { + "start": 397.6, + "text": "web of overlapping multifunctional" + }, + { + "start": 399.84, + "text": "networks that constantly interact. Not a" + }, + { + "start": 402.24, + "text": "collection of specialized parts like we" + }, + { + "start": 404.0, + "text": "thought or specialized circuits. So the" + }, + { + "start": 406.8, + "text": "cortex didn't seem to be specialized" + }, + { + "start": 408.319, + "text": "like this but we like we thought the" + }, + { + "start": 409.919, + "text": "20th century. It was more like this. a" + }, + { + "start": 412.639, + "text": "collection of overlapping networks or" + }, + { + "start": 414.4, + "text": "individual neurons participate in" + }, + { + "start": 416.16, + "text": "multiple different networks and they" + }, + { + "start": 418.24, + "text": "change their network participation in" + }, + { + "start": 420.479, + "text": "different situations." + }, + { + "start": 422.319, + "text": "Now I'm just for a moment I'm going to" + }, + { + "start": 423.599, + "text": "take a little bit of a detour here and" + }, + { + "start": 425.44, + "text": "explain to you a little bit about the" + }, + { + "start": 426.479, + "text": "property of mix activity because it" + }, + { + "start": 428.0, + "text": "really is key. Your cortex is full of" + }, + { + "start": 430.08, + "text": "these neurons and they form a core" + }, + { + "start": 432.56, + "text": "computational strategy that of your" + }, + { + "start": 435.36, + "text": "cortex." + }, + { + "start": 436.88, + "text": "So here's an example of mixed" + }, + { + "start": 438.0, + "text": "selectivity neurons. First, we'll start" + }, + { + "start": 439.52, + "text": "with a 20th century model, the" + }, + { + "start": 441.12, + "text": "specialized neurons. And here's a simple" + }, + { + "start": 443.36, + "text": "task. You have the subject. In our case," + }, + { + "start": 445.919, + "text": "we use non-human primates, monkeys. We" + }, + { + "start": 448.639, + "text": "have the subject. I hope you guys can" + }, + { + "start": 450.24, + "text": "see my cursor. Can you give me a thumbs" + }, + { + "start": 451.84, + "text": "up if you can? Good. Um, in this simple" + }, + { + "start": 455.039, + "text": "task, the animal sees two objects in a" + }, + { + "start": 457.12, + "text": "row. This case, a butterfly and a and a" + }, + { + "start": 460.0, + "text": "um and a um padlock. Then after a short" + }, + { + "start": 463.52, + "text": "memory delay, they're given three" + }, + { + "start": 464.88, + "text": "pictures sim three objects" + }, + { + "start": 466.319, + "text": "simultaneously and they have to" + }, + { + "start": 467.919, + "text": "demonstrate their memory for the order." + }, + { + "start": 470.479, + "text": "These two pictures are in their order by" + }, + { + "start": 472.72, + "text": "choosing them in in sequence. So first" + }, + { + "start": 474.8, + "text": "choose the butterfly, then choose the" + }, + { + "start": 476.629, + "text": "e the butterfly, then choose the" + }, + { + "start": 476.639, + "text": "padlock. That's uh that's because that's" + }, + { + "start": 479.44, + "text": "what the the animal just saw. Now" + }, + { + "start": 481.599, + "text": "according to the 20th century model," + }, + { + "start": 483.28, + "text": "what should happen is you should find" + }, + { + "start": 485.36, + "text": "some neurons that are selective. They" + }, + { + "start": 488.08, + "text": "spike selectively to different objects." + }, + { + "start": 490.0, + "text": "So here's a neuron that spikes the most" + }, + { + "start": 492.879, + "text": "to the padlock and the least to the this" + }, + { + "start": 495.36, + "text": "is neural activity spiking activity on" + }, + { + "start": 497.52, + "text": "the x- axis time on the x- axis. The" + }, + { + "start": 500.4, + "text": "gray is when you're presenting these" + }, + { + "start": 501.919, + "text": "objects. And according to 20th century" + }, + { + "start": 503.759, + "text": "model, you have a neuron. This is a" + }, + { + "start": 505.36, + "text": "single neuron here that responds most to" + }, + { + "start": 507.68, + "text": "the padlock responds um spikes at a" + }, + { + "start": 511.68, + "text": "medium level to the flower and the least" + }, + { + "start": 514.08, + "text": "to the butterfly. And this neuron will" + }, + { + "start": 516.24, + "text": "always give the same message every time" + }, + { + "start": 518.0, + "text": "it sees a butterfly or a padlock or a" + }, + { + "start": 520.64, + "text": "flower. Never changes. And you might" + }, + { + "start": 523.039, + "text": "find some other neurons that just keep" + }, + { + "start": 524.64, + "text": "track of the order of the objects." + }, + { + "start": 526.0, + "text": "They're pure some neurons that will" + }, + { + "start": 528.08, + "text": "respond more when things appear first" + }, + { + "start": 530.8, + "text": "and less when things appear second." + }, + { + "start": 532.56, + "text": "Other neurons that do the opposite." + }, + { + "start": 534.32, + "text": "That's what the 20th century model" + }, + { + "start": 535.92, + "text": "predicted. We did this experiment and" + }, + { + "start": 538.399, + "text": "what we found instead was these mixed" + }, + { + "start": 540.48, + "text": "selectivity multifunctional neurons." + }, + { + "start": 542.32, + "text": "Many experiments have been done since in" + }, + { + "start": 544.24, + "text": "the past 20 years or so. And what you" + }, + { + "start": 546.48, + "text": "find is you find neurons are" + }, + { + "start": 548.48, + "text": "multipplexing combinations of factors." + }, + { + "start": 550.959, + "text": "So this neuron we I've illustrated here" + }, + { + "start": 553.2, + "text": "is responding most to the padlock and" + }, + { + "start": 555.6, + "text": "least to the butterfly. Most spikes to" + }, + { + "start": 557.44, + "text": "the padlock and least spikes to the" + }, + { + "start": 559.04, + "text": "butterfly when the but when when those" + }, + { + "start": 561.2, + "text": "objects appear first. But when when" + }, + { + "start": 563.36, + "text": "those objects appear second, they show" + }, + { + "start": 565.44, + "text": "different patterns of spiking. Now this" + }, + { + "start": 566.959, + "text": "neuron is spiking most to the butterfly" + }, + { + "start": 568.959, + "text": "and least to the padlock. And you see" + }, + { + "start": 571.279, + "text": "different combinations of these factors," + }, + { + "start": 573.04, + "text": "these neurons seemingly giving different" + }, + { + "start": 575.6, + "text": "messages in diff in different contexts." + }, + { + "start": 578.88, + "text": "And because they spike at different" + }, + { + "start": 580.24, + "text": "objects in different orders, different" + }, + { + "start": 582.08, + "text": "contexts, these neurons are doing this" + }, + { + "start": 584.32, + "text": "multipplexing of different factors. And" + }, + { + "start": 586.88, + "text": "it this gives them flexibility. It means" + }, + { + "start": 588.72, + "text": "they're spiking is context dependent." + }, + { + "start": 590.8, + "text": "These neurons are doing different" + }, + { + "start": 592.16, + "text": "functions in different contexts. And if" + }, + { + "start": 594.399, + "text": "you had one word to describe cognition," + }, + { + "start": 597.44, + "text": "it would be context dependent behavior." + }, + { + "start": 599.68, + "text": "flexibility. Our brains don't do the" + }, + { + "start": 602.399, + "text": "same thing every time to the same input." + }, + { + "start": 604.72, + "text": "We're not like thermostats. We behave" + }, + { + "start": 607.04, + "text": "differently in restaurants than we might" + }, + { + "start": 609.04, + "text": "at a picnic. We we we we u behave" + }, + { + "start": 612.08, + "text": "differently when we're sitting down to a" + }, + { + "start": 613.519, + "text": "lecture versus a concert hall. Our our" + }, + { + "start": 616.0, + "text": "behavior is all context dependent. And" + }, + { + "start": 618.0, + "text": "that's what cognition is all about. And" + }, + { + "start": 619.92, + "text": "these neurons seem to be the embodiment" + }, + { + "start": 622.16, + "text": "of that cognitive flexibility, that" + }, + { + "start": 624.32, + "text": "context dependent behavior of cognition." + }, + { + "start": 627.839, + "text": "And this skin this makes them" + }, + { + "start": 629.04, + "text": "multifunctional. And what my colleagues" + }, + { + "start": 631.279, + "text": "Madi Regati and Safano Fusi did using a" + }, + { + "start": 634.399, + "text": "data collected by Melissa Warden who's" + }, + { + "start": 636.32, + "text": "in my laboratory is they built" + }, + { + "start": 638.16, + "text": "computational models showing this mixed" + }, + { + "start": 639.839, + "text": "selectivity property is critical for" + }, + { + "start": 642.0, + "text": "cognition. It gives the brain more" + }, + { + "start": 644.8, + "text": "computational horsepower. They form a" + }, + { + "start": 647.76, + "text": "nonlinear highdimensional computational" + }, + { + "start": 650.48, + "text": "space that allows the brain to solve" + }, + { + "start": 652.32, + "text": "more complex problems. And their" + }, + { + "start": 654.88, + "text": "flexibility allows the brain to learn" + }, + { + "start": 657.04, + "text": "things really quickly. And they increase" + }, + { + "start": 659.68, + "text": "the storage capacity of the brain" + }, + { + "start": 661.44, + "text": "because rather than all your memories" + }, + { + "start": 664.56, + "text": "and knowledge being stored in a few" + }, + { + "start": 666.16, + "text": "specialized neurons, they're distributed" + }, + { + "start": 668.399, + "text": "across many multifunctional neurons" + }, + { + "start": 670.48, + "text": "which makes the brain pretty much" + }, + { + "start": 672.16, + "text": "capacity unlimited." + }, + { + "start": 675.6, + "text": "But this leads us to our biggest" + }, + { + "start": 677.04, + "text": "challenge. How does the brain control" + }, + { + "start": 679.279, + "text": "such a complex system with overlapping" + }, + { + "start": 681.92, + "text": "networks and these multifunctional mix" + }, + { + "start": 684.24, + "text": "selectivity neurons that change their" + }, + { + "start": 686.399, + "text": "membership in different networks" + }, + { + "start": 687.839, + "text": "depending on the situation at hand? How" + }, + { + "start": 689.92, + "text": "can the brain do that? And this is a" + }, + { + "start": 691.92, + "text": "challenge because we are again our" + }, + { + "start": 694.24, + "text": "brains don't just respond to inputs to" + }, + { + "start": 696.24, + "text": "the out from the outside world. We have" + }, + { + "start": 698.56, + "text": "control over our own brains. We take" + }, + { + "start": 701.36, + "text": "charge of our own thoughts. We don't" + }, + { + "start": 703.6, + "text": "don't just react to inputs like a" + }, + { + "start": 705.12, + "text": "thermostat or like AI does. by way" + }, + { + "start": 707.04, + "text": "that's what AI does. AI just responds to" + }, + { + "start": 708.959, + "text": "inputs. It has no internal mild internal" + }, + { + "start": 711.6, + "text": "monologue like we do. We act differently" + }, + { + "start": 714.8, + "text": "depending on the situation. This is the" + }, + { + "start": 716.399, + "text": "context dependent behavior I was just" + }, + { + "start": 718.48, + "text": "telling you about. And we make goals and" + }, + { + "start": 720.72, + "text": "set plans. I can choose what goal I want" + }, + { + "start": 723.36, + "text": "to reach in the future and make plans to" + }, + { + "start": 725.04, + "text": "get there and then ignore things in the" + }, + { + "start": 727.12, + "text": "outside world that count that that" + }, + { + "start": 728.959, + "text": "counteract that plan in order to get to" + }, + { + "start": 730.639, + "text": "my goal. And we do this flexibly to" + }, + { + "start": 733.6, + "text": "navigate a fast-paced world." + }, + { + "start": 736.079, + "text": "It seems impossibly complex to build a" + }, + { + "start": 738.88, + "text": "control system that works by" + }, + { + "start": 740.0, + "text": "connectionism. Connectionism may work" + }, + { + "start": 742.32, + "text": "fine for storing information in the" + }, + { + "start": 744.16, + "text": "brain, for baking information into the" + }, + { + "start": 745.92, + "text": "brain, but in order to do all this" + }, + { + "start": 747.67, + "text": "but in order to do all this" + }, + { + "start": 747.68, + "text": "computation allows us to take control of" + }, + { + "start": 749.76, + "text": "our own thoughts. How does that work if" + }, + { + "start": 751.839, + "text": "the brain only works by connections," + }, + { + "start": 754.079, + "text": "right? It would require on the-ly" + }, + { + "start": 756.72, + "text": "subsecond control of gazillions of" + }, + { + "start": 759.279, + "text": "connections, gazillions of synapses" + }, + { + "start": 760.88, + "text": "between a gazillion neurons. And that" + }, + { + "start": 763.12, + "text": "just seems computationally intractable." + }, + { + "start": 766.72, + "text": "So what's the solution? A number of us" + }, + { + "start": 769.6, + "text": "including our laboratory have come to" + }, + { + "start": 771.36, + "text": "the conclusion that that the electric" + }, + { + "start": 773.44, + "text": "fields are the solution to this problem." + }, + { + "start": 776.399, + "text": "What we call brain waves. Brain waves" + }, + { + "start": 778.16, + "text": "are rhythmic fluctuations in the" + }, + { + "start": 779.68, + "text": "electric field surrounding neurons. When" + }, + { + "start": 781.92, + "text": "neurons spike, of course, they're" + }, + { + "start": 783.279, + "text": "existing in this electrical environment." + }, + { + "start": 785.279, + "text": "When they spike, they cause ripples in" + }, + { + "start": 786.88, + "text": "the electrical fields around them. and" + }, + { + "start": 788.8, + "text": "you get enough spiking, you get enough" + }, + { + "start": 790.24, + "text": "ripples in the rhythmic fluctuations in" + }, + { + "start": 791.839, + "text": "the electric fields and they turn around" + }, + { + "start": 793.76, + "text": "and they influence the spiking. A lot of" + }, + { + "start": 796.16, + "text": "you may be familiar with with brain" + }, + { + "start": 798.0, + "text": "waves. There's here's a recording here" + }, + { + "start": 799.76, + "text": "on the left is a cartoon showing EEG" + }, + { + "start": 802.56, + "text": "scalp recordings from the human scalp." + }, + { + "start": 804.88, + "text": "And you get you get a range of fre the" + }, + { + "start": 807.04, + "text": "squiggly lines you see on an EEG reflect" + }, + { + "start": 809.36, + "text": "a summation of of um a variet a wide" + }, + { + "start": 812.8, + "text": "band of of of of rhythmic oscillations" + }, + { + "start": 815.76, + "text": "in the brain and they're grouped into" + }, + { + "start": 817.839, + "text": "frequency bands loosely associated with" + }, + { + "start": 819.839, + "text": "different behavioral cognitive states." + }, + { + "start": 821.839, + "text": "So when your brain is giving high" + }, + { + "start": 823.44, + "text": "frequencies like 30 hertz and above" + }, + { + "start": 825.2, + "text": "gamma means you're awake and alert. Next" + }, + { + "start": 828.0, + "text": "down beta I'll talk about beta. This is" + }, + { + "start": 830.16, + "text": "when your mind is concentrating. when" + }, + { + "start": 831.839, + "text": "your brain is concentrating. I'll talk" + }, + { + "start": 833.04, + "text": "about that in a moment. And also alpha." + }, + { + "start": 835.44, + "text": "And then you get down to lower" + }, + { + "start": 836.56, + "text": "frequencies and now you're more relaxed." + }, + { + "start": 838.56, + "text": "Eventually you get to delta low" + }, + { + "start": 840.8, + "text": "frequencies and that's when you're" + }, + { + "start": 841.92, + "text": "sleeping or anesthetize, which I'll also" + }, + { + "start": 844.24, + "text": "show you in a minute. So we know that" + }, + { + "start": 846.72, + "text": "these these um oscillations, these" + }, + { + "start": 848.88, + "text": "electric field oscillations, brain waves" + }, + { + "start": 851.44, + "text": "correlate pretty well with cognitive" + }, + { + "start": 853.76, + "text": "state and consciousness." + }, + { + "start": 855.839, + "text": "And they were the first electrical" + }, + { + "start": 857.36, + "text": "signal measured from the brain before we" + }, + { + "start": 859.199, + "text": "could had the technology record" + }, + { + "start": 860.639, + "text": "individual neurons." + }, + { + "start": 863.12, + "text": "But when the focus in the mid in the in" + }, + { + "start": 865.519, + "text": "uh mid 20th century shifted to neurons" + }, + { + "start": 867.839, + "text": "and connectism, brain waves were" + }, + { + "start": 869.68, + "text": "dismissed as non-functional. Kind of" + }, + { + "start": 871.279, + "text": "like the humming of a car engine. They" + }, + { + "start": 873.12, + "text": "don't make the engine run. These these" + }, + { + "start": 875.279, + "text": "electrical oscillations, they don't make" + }, + { + "start": 877.04, + "text": "the brain run. There is a byproduct of" + }, + { + "start": 879.04, + "text": "of the of the um of the brain running." + }, + { + "start": 881.76, + "text": "Now um first of all anybody who" + }, + { + "start": 883.76, + "text": "understands basic electromagnetic theory" + }, + { + "start": 885.92, + "text": "knows that can't be true. If the neurons" + }, + { + "start": 888.24, + "text": "exist in this electrical environment and" + }, + { + "start": 890.24, + "text": "their spiking is changing that" + }, + { + "start": 892.16, + "text": "electrical environment it's going to" + }, + { + "start": 893.44, + "text": "have an influence on on um sp on on" + }, + { + "start": 896.32, + "text": "spiking. But also I'm here to say that" + }, + { + "start": 898.8, + "text": "we need to banish the word epiphenomenon" + }, + { + "start": 901.12, + "text": "from neuroscience specifically in" + }, + { + "start": 902.959, + "text": "science in general because whenever I" + }, + { + "start": 905.279, + "text": "hear the word epiphenomenon that's what" + }, + { + "start": 907.6, + "text": "people said about this mean by" + }, + { + "start": 908.959, + "text": "non-functional. Brain waves are" + }, + { + "start": 910.56, + "text": "epifenomenal. When I hear the word" + }, + { + "start": 912.56, + "text": "epiphen whenever someone says" + }, + { + "start": 914.079, + "text": "epiphenomenon I hear doesn't fit my" + }, + { + "start": 916.87, + "text": "omenon I hear doesn't fit my" + }, + { + "start": 916.88, + "text": "theory. Okay? You know be and if your" + }, + { + "start": 920.399, + "text": "theory is not explaining all the" + }, + { + "start": 921.99, + "text": "is not explaining all the" + }, + { + "start": 922.0, + "text": "observations then the your theory is" + }, + { + "start": 924.0, + "text": "falling short. It's not that the" + }, + { + "start": 925.199, + "text": "observations are irrelevant. Saying the" + }, + { + "start": 927.36, + "text": "observations are things are" + }, + { + "start": 928.47, + "text": "things are" + }, + { + "start": 928.48, + "text": "non-functional or epifenomenal is an eg" + }, + { + "start": 931.04, + "text": "crutch to dismiss ideas that don't fit" + }, + { + "start": 933.68, + "text": "your hypothesis. So we got to banish" + }, + { + "start": 936.079, + "text": "that from from from neuroscience" + }, + { + "start": 938.72, + "text": "particularly because we've only" + }, + { + "start": 940.0, + "text": "scratched the surface in how the brain" + }, + { + "start": 941.44, + "text": "works. And again we now know this is not" + }, + { + "start": 944.079, + "text": "true. One way we know this is not true" + }, + { + "start": 946.639, + "text": "is work I've done uh in my my lab with" + }, + { + "start": 949.839, + "text": "in collaboration with Emmy Brown's" + }, + { + "start": 951.199, + "text": "laboratory where we're studying how" + }, + { + "start": 953.04, + "text": "general anesthesia affects the brain." + }, + { + "start": 955.519, + "text": "Now it may be um a little disturbing you" + }, + { + "start": 958.16, + "text": "know because anesthesia has been around" + }, + { + "start": 959.519, + "text": "since I believe 1869. Etherdome over" + }, + { + "start": 962.079, + "text": "here at MGH. I believe it's 1869 around" + }, + { + "start": 965.44, + "text": "there. Um where the first demonstration" + }, + { + "start": 968.32, + "text": "of med medical anesthesia was given. Um" + }, + { + "start": 972.079, + "text": "there's been this no doctors for all" + }, + { + "start": 974.8, + "text": "this time doctors have really not known" + }, + { + "start": 976.399, + "text": "why anesthesia makes you unconscious." + }, + { + "start": 978.079, + "text": "They just know it works. It's like a lot" + }, + { + "start": 979.44, + "text": "of things in medicine. It works. We" + }, + { + "start": 981.199, + "text": "don't know why. So we use it. And it was" + }, + { + "start": 983.6, + "text": "thought that anesthesia just kind of" + }, + { + "start": 985.12, + "text": "shut off your cortex. May just zero out" + }, + { + "start": 987.519, + "text": "your cortex. Hit the off button at your" + }, + { + "start": 989.199, + "text": "cortex. And we found in starting these" + }, + { + "start": 991.68, + "text": "studies about 10 years ago, this is" + }, + { + "start": 993.36, + "text": "absolutely not true. What general" + }, + { + "start": 995.12, + "text": "anesthesia does, it doesn't turn off" + }, + { + "start": 996.48, + "text": "your cortex. It it dramatically alters" + }, + { + "start": 998.56, + "text": "the brain wave dynamics. So here's a" + }, + { + "start": 1000.88, + "text": "recording of what's called local field" + }, + { + "start": 1002.56, + "text": "potentials. These are essentially" + }, + { + "start": 1003.839, + "text": "electric field recordings from inside" + }, + { + "start": 1005.6, + "text": "the the brain, inside the skull. And" + }, + { + "start": 1008.8, + "text": "that's we're seeing these colored these" + }, + { + "start": 1010.48, + "text": "are uh four different areas of the" + }, + { + "start": 1012.399, + "text": "cortex. These two areas in the top are" + }, + { + "start": 1014.72, + "text": "the frontal cortex, the front of your" + }, + { + "start": 1016.24, + "text": "brain, the executive part of your brain." + }, + { + "start": 1018.16, + "text": "This is the parietal cortex in the" + }, + { + "start": 1020.0, + "text": "middle of your cortex and back here STG" + }, + { + "start": 1022.56, + "text": "is is primary auditory cortex. So" + }, + { + "start": 1025.039, + "text": "sensory cortex. So we're we're" + }, + { + "start": 1026.64, + "text": "bracketing sensory to frontal cortex" + }, + { + "start": 1028.799, + "text": "here. And these are electric field" + }, + { + "start": 1030.559, + "text": "recordings on the top and the bottom are" + }, + { + "start": 1032.72, + "text": "the spikes of individual neurons" + }, + { + "start": 1034.799, + "text": "recorded from those same electrodes. And" + }, + { + "start": 1037.12, + "text": "what you see in the conscious awake" + }, + { + "start": 1038.72, + "text": "state is a lot of high frequency" + }, + { + "start": 1040.319, + "text": "chatter. A lot of stuff is going on." + }, + { + "start": 1042.4, + "text": "There's a lot of uh waves superimposed" + }, + { + "start": 1044.24, + "text": "on top of waves as all these waves do" + }, + { + "start": 1046.079, + "text": "different things. So you see a lot of" + }, + { + "start": 1047.76, + "text": "high frequency low amplitude chatter and" + }, + { + "start": 1050.72, + "text": "a lot of spiking going on. It's very" + }, + { + "start": 1052.559, + "text": "very very busy and complicated complex." + }, + { + "start": 1055.84, + "text": "Then once we anesthetize the animal with" + }, + { + "start": 1057.76, + "text": "a commonly used anesthetic called" + }, + { + "start": 1059.36, + "text": "propall we then find that that this" + }, + { + "start": 1062.32, + "text": "shifts the brain to lower frequency a" + }, + { + "start": 1065.039, + "text": "lower frequency band to to to 30 hertz" + }, + { + "start": 1067.84, + "text": "and to mainly 20 hertz and below mainly" + }, + { + "start": 1070.64, + "text": "centered around delta one time a second." + }, + { + "start": 1073.039, + "text": "So your brain shifts to these low" + }, + { + "start": 1074.64, + "text": "frequency oscillations. You can see" + }, + { + "start": 1076.24, + "text": "here, here's the high frequency chatter" + }, + { + "start": 1078.24, + "text": "when you're conscious. Now the the" + }, + { + "start": 1080.48, + "text": "electric fields are now doing this slow" + }, + { + "start": 1082.4, + "text": "frequency almost like a slowwave sleep" + }, + { + "start": 1085.52, + "text": "kind of thing. And the spiking activity" + }, + { + "start": 1087.84, + "text": "in different parts of cortex are now" + }, + { + "start": 1090.4, + "text": "lining up to these slowwave dynamics." + }, + { + "start": 1093.28, + "text": "They were lined up to the high frequency" + }, + { + "start": 1095.039, + "text": "stuff here. We just couldn't sort them" + }, + { + "start": 1096.72, + "text": "out at least at first glance because" + }, + { + "start": 1099.039, + "text": "there's a lot of fre lower and higher" + }, + { + "start": 1101.36, + "text": "frequencies embedded in one another" + }, + { + "start": 1103.44, + "text": "harmonizing one another in the conscious" + }, + { + "start": 1106.16, + "text": "situation. But now that most of the" + }, + { + "start": 1108.0, + "text": "frequencies have been replaced by slow" + }, + { + "start": 1109.6, + "text": "frequencies, we can see it effect" + }, + { + "start": 1111.669, + "text": ", we can see it effect" + }, + { + "start": 1111.679, + "text": "spiking activity from individual neurons" + }, + { + "start": 1114.16, + "text": "strongly phase locks to different um" + }, + { + "start": 1117.12, + "text": "parts of of these low frequency waves." + }, + { + "start": 1119.76, + "text": "And the other thing anesthesia does is" + }, + { + "start": 1121.84, + "text": "it seems to scramble the alignment of" + }, + { + "start": 1123.679, + "text": "the brain waves. Okay. So before in in" + }, + { + "start": 1127.6, + "text": "the awake state all these brain waves" + }, + { + "start": 1129.28, + "text": "are highly synchronous and the peaks" + }, + { + "start": 1130.96, + "text": "tend to line up one another because your" + }, + { + "start": 1132.64, + "text": "your brains your cortex is talking to" + }, + { + "start": 1134.559, + "text": "one another and when peaks of um of" + }, + { + "start": 1137.6, + "text": "waves mean then the the is a highly" + }, + { + "start": 1139.679, + "text": "excitable state and troughs are are low" + }, + { + "start": 1141.76, + "text": "energy states. So that's how cortical" + }, + { + "start": 1144.48, + "text": "communication works. When when waves are" + }, + { + "start": 1146.96, + "text": "in sync with one another, the neurons" + }, + { + "start": 1148.799, + "text": "are excitable at the same time. And then" + }, + { + "start": 1150.559, + "text": "when they're and then they're in low" + }, + { + "start": 1152.559, + "text": "energy states at the same time. So they" + }, + { + "start": 1154.24, + "text": "can talk to one another because they're" + }, + { + "start": 1155.679, + "text": "they're in high energy states, their" + }, + { + "start": 1157.679, + "text": "high energy states are synchronous. But" + }, + { + "start": 1159.44, + "text": "after anesthesia, these waves become" + }, + { + "start": 1161.52, + "text": "misaligned. They become almost 180" + }, + { + "start": 1164.0, + "text": "degrees out of phase of one another. So" + }, + { + "start": 1165.84, + "text": "now when one set of neurons is in" + }, + { + "start": 1167.52, + "text": "excitable state, another set of neurons" + }, + { + "start": 1169.36, + "text": "is a low energy state. And you're" + }, + { + "start": 1171.12, + "text": "essentially fragmenting cortex and" + }, + { + "start": 1172.88, + "text": "breaking apart communication. And you" + }, + { + "start": 1175.12, + "text": "can see that here. Here is the spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1176.96, + "text": "activity from different areas. And" + }, + { + "start": 1179.039, + "text": "within an area, the spikes line up, but" + }, + { + "start": 1180.88, + "text": "you see the spikes are now misaligned" + }, + { + "start": 1183.2, + "text": "across the different cortical areas. So" + }, + { + "start": 1185.76, + "text": "that's what anesthesia does to your" + }, + { + "start": 1187.039, + "text": "brain. It doesn't shut off your cortex." + }, + { + "start": 1189.12, + "text": "It misaligned and fragments the uh the" + }, + { + "start": 1191.76, + "text": "the brain waves." + }, + { + "start": 1193.919, + "text": "Now, we did this first study. We did" + }, + { + "start": 1195.44, + "text": "this with propall one common anesthetic." + }, + { + "start": 1198.24, + "text": "We've since then branched off of" + }, + { + "start": 1199.6, + "text": "different anesthetics because medical um" + }, + { + "start": 1203.039, + "text": "practice uses a variety of different" + }, + { + "start": 1204.48, + "text": "anesthetics. So we did too. And what we" + }, + { + "start": 1206.96, + "text": "found is something kind of I think is" + }, + { + "start": 1208.559, + "text": "kind of remarkable. We're finding a" + }, + { + "start": 1209.919, + "text": "universal signature of unconsciousness." + }, + { + "start": 1212.24, + "text": "We saw these same effects with" + }, + { + "start": 1214.32, + "text": "anesthetic doses of three different" + }, + { + "start": 1216.0, + "text": "drugs that have different molecular" + }, + { + "start": 1217.679, + "text": "actions. Propol, which I just told you" + }, + { + "start": 1219.76, + "text": "about, ketamine, anesthetic doses of" + }, + { + "start": 1222.32, + "text": "ketamine and dexatonine. All these" + }, + { + "start": 1225.44, + "text": "things make you unconscious and they all" + }, + { + "start": 1227.679, + "text": "act on different molecular receptors in" + }, + { + "start": 1229.919, + "text": "different systems in your brain," + }, + { + "start": 1231.039, + "text": "different cells in your brain, but they" + }, + { + "start": 1232.95, + "text": "cells in your brain, but they" + }, + { + "start": 1232.96, + "text": "all do the same thing to the brain" + }, + { + "start": 1234.32, + "text": "waves. Now, if you think about that," + }, + { + "start": 1236.559, + "text": "that means we're seeing a convergent" + }, + { + "start": 1238.08, + "text": "level effect at the brain wave level" + }, + { + "start": 1240.24, + "text": "that can't be seen at the more" + }, + { + "start": 1241.6, + "text": "reductionist level. So, to my" + }, + { + "start": 1243.52, + "text": "reductionistic colleagues who say, you" + }, + { + "start": 1245.11, + "text": "ic colleagues who say, you" + }, + { + "start": 1245.12, + "text": "know, this brain wave stuff is just a" + }, + { + "start": 1247.2, + "text": "humming of the car engine, we can" + }, + { + "start": 1248.96, + "text": "explain how all these different" + }, + { + "start": 1250.159, + "text": "anesthetics um have the same effect" + }, + { + "start": 1252.88, + "text": "making you unconscious. And this in" + }, + { + "start": 1254.64, + "text": "principle cannot be explained on the" + }, + { + "start": 1256.0, + "text": "reductionistic level. So a strong" + }, + { + "start": 1258.32, + "text": "argument for function. And the other we" + }, + { + "start": 1260.96, + "text": "know we also know from a large body of" + }, + { + "start": 1263.52, + "text": "work is that these brain waves have a" + }, + { + "start": 1265.36, + "text": "direct influence on on spiking activity" + }, + { + "start": 1267.919, + "text": "in cortex and in fact all over your" + }, + { + "start": 1270.159, + "text": "brain not just cortex. So if this buoy" + }, + { + "start": 1272.88, + "text": "here is a spike in in your uh in the in" + }, + { + "start": 1276.0, + "text": "your cortex, the spiking activity rolls" + }, + { + "start": 1278.64, + "text": "the waves and the waves begin to knock" + }, + { + "start": 1280.559, + "text": "the buoy up and down. This is it's a" + }, + { + "start": 1282.24, + "text": "two-way street. is birectional. It's" + }, + { + "start": 1284.159, + "text": "inevitable because of basic" + }, + { + "start": 1286.0, + "text": "electromagnetic theory. And so brain" + }, + { + "start": 1289.039, + "text": "waves are made of the same stuff," + }, + { + "start": 1290.48, + "text": "spikes, changes in voltage levels, just" + }, + { + "start": 1292.64, + "text": "on a longer time scarger spatial and" + }, + { + "start": 1295.36, + "text": "longer time scale. And that means they" + }, + { + "start": 1297.679, + "text": "exert a strong influence on when neurons" + }, + { + "start": 1299.919, + "text": "spiking cortex. It's kind of like" + }, + { + "start": 1302.0, + "text": "overlaying powerful radio waves onto a" + }, + { + "start": 1304.24, + "text": "telegraph system with the waves" + }, + { + "start": 1306.24, + "text": "modulating the impulses and wires. I" + }, + { + "start": 1308.32, + "text": "know I'm probably speaking on a very" + }, + { + "start": 1309.76, + "text": "elemental level to this particular" + }, + { + "start": 1311.6, + "text": "group, but to a lot of people who" + }, + { + "start": 1313.12, + "text": "haven't thought about these waves" + }, + { + "start": 1314.24, + "text": "before, this kind of stuff is uh can be" + }, + { + "start": 1316.72, + "text": "new to them. So, here's a crowd here" + }, + { + "start": 1319.76, + "text": "doing the wave. You see the the wave is" + }, + { + "start": 1322.799, + "text": "moving from right to left across the" + }, + { + "start": 1324.48, + "text": "screen. What your brain does is this" + }, + { + "start": 1326.48, + "text": "too. If these pe individual people in" + }, + { + "start": 1328.24, + "text": "the crowd are individual neurons, what" + }, + { + "start": 1330.159, + "text": "we see all over cortex, in fact all over" + }, + { + "start": 1332.559, + "text": "the brain, your cerebellum, subcortical" + }, + { + "start": 1335.2, + "text": "areas, even primitive brain structures" + }, + { + "start": 1337.36, + "text": "like your youractory bulb, you see the" + }, + { + "start": 1339.84, + "text": "ongo you see neurons spiking in" + }, + { + "start": 1342.24, + "text": "synchrony to peaks of ongoing uh uh" + }, + { + "start": 1345.84, + "text": "brain waves. You see that here? Here's" + }, + { + "start": 1347.44, + "text": "the brain waves going on. Your brain's" + }, + { + "start": 1349.2, + "text": "doing the wave here. And spikes tend to" + }, + { + "start": 1351.28, + "text": "occur. They phase lock to high energy" + }, + { + "start": 1353.6, + "text": "states of the waves. Okay?" + }, + { + "start": 1356.72, + "text": "Now for the last 10 years or so, our" + }, + { + "start": 1359.52, + "text": "laboratory has amassed quite a bit of" + }, + { + "start": 1361.84, + "text": "evidence showing that there's now the" + }, + { + "start": 1364.0, + "text": "know it's a mistake to to to assign" + }, + { + "start": 1367.28, + "text": "specific functions to individual" + }, + { + "start": 1368.96, + "text": "frequencies or frequency bands because" + }, + { + "start": 1371.36, + "text": "that's like saying a electrical impulse" + }, + { + "start": 1373.919, + "text": "has a certain function. It doesn't. It" + }, + { + "start": 1375.36, + "text": "depends on the circuit which is embedded" + }, + { + "start": 1377.12, + "text": "in. But we're finding a general divide" + }, + { + "start": 1380.32, + "text": "of function between higher frequencies" + }, + { + "start": 1383.2, + "text": "and mid mid to lower frequencies. And" + }, + { + "start": 1386.24, + "text": "what seems what what this evidence" + }, + { + "start": 1388.0, + "text": "suggests is that bottom up incoming" + }, + { + "start": 1390.0, + "text": "sensory information which is associated" + }, + { + "start": 1392.159, + "text": "with high energy states in your brain," + }, + { + "start": 1395.039, + "text": "lots of spiking activity of neurons." + }, + { + "start": 1397.6, + "text": "That's also associated with high" + }, + { + "start": 1399.2, + "text": "frequency brain waves that feed sensory" + }, + { + "start": 1402.0, + "text": "information forward from the back of" + }, + { + "start": 1404.0, + "text": "your brain where it's first processed" + }, + { + "start": 1406.08, + "text": "forward in your brain to your executive" + }, + { + "start": 1408.72, + "text": "parts of your brain, the front of your" + }, + { + "start": 1410.0, + "text": "brain. So that's so when you when you" + }, + { + "start": 1412.32, + "text": "see something, when you hear something," + }, + { + "start": 1413.919, + "text": "when you're touched, there's a lot of" + }, + { + "start": 1415.679, + "text": "spiking going on your sensory cortex," + }, + { + "start": 1417.76, + "text": "that's riding on top of these high" + }, + { + "start": 1419.36, + "text": "frequency gamma waves, 30 Hz and above" + }, + { + "start": 1421.52, + "text": "waves, feeding information forward in" + }, + { + "start": 1423.76, + "text": "waves in your cortex. At the same time," + }, + { + "start": 1427.59, + "text": "in your cortex. At the same time," + }, + { + "start": 1427.6, + "text": "your executive frontal cortex, which is" + }, + { + "start": 1430.32, + "text": "what takes charge of your brain, it's" + }, + { + "start": 1432.4, + "text": "feeding back signals in the opposite" + }, + { + "start": 1434.08, + "text": "direction that that provide that" + }, + { + "start": 1435.52, + "text": "executive control. And those signals are" + }, + { + "start": 1439.36, + "text": "at a lower to mid-frequency band, alpha," + }, + { + "start": 1441.6, + "text": "beta, 10 to 25 hertz. And we've shown" + }, + { + "start": 1444.72, + "text": "that they have an inhibitory influence." + }, + { + "start": 1446.72, + "text": "They suppress they reduce energy on the" + }, + { + "start": 1449.76, + "text": "on these excitatory gamma signals. Okay?" + }, + { + "start": 1453.039, + "text": "And that allows your brain to control" + }, + { + "start": 1455.44, + "text": "what you pay attention to. It allows" + }, + { + "start": 1457.44, + "text": "your brain to filter out the bulk of" + }, + { + "start": 1459.039, + "text": "sensory information. If your brain tried" + }, + { + "start": 1460.799, + "text": "to process all the sensory information" + }, + { + "start": 1462.88, + "text": "flooding into it right now, it would be" + }, + { + "start": 1464.88, + "text": "overwhelmed because your brain doesn't" + }, + { + "start": 1467.039, + "text": "have that capacity. And that's what you" + }, + { + "start": 1468.559, + "text": "see in autism, by the way. You see the" + }, + { + "start": 1470.159, + "text": "sensory overload. Well, these we've" + }, + { + "start": 1473.12, + "text": "amassed evidence showing these top down" + }, + { + "start": 1474.799, + "text": "these alpha beta control signals having" + }, + { + "start": 1476.88, + "text": "this inhibitory influence on these" + }, + { + "start": 1478.48, + "text": "excitatory signals feeding forward can" + }, + { + "start": 1480.88, + "text": "provide that filtering that prevents" + }, + { + "start": 1482.88, + "text": "sensory overload and allows attention" + }, + { + "start": 1485.84, + "text": "and executive control over the brain." + }, + { + "start": 1488.32, + "text": "Now your cortex has multiple layers." + }, + { + "start": 1490.159, + "text": "Your cortex is kind of like an onion." + }, + { + "start": 1492.4, + "text": "And we know from the anatomy that the" + }, + { + "start": 1495.36, + "text": "superficial, the outer layers of cortex" + }, + { + "start": 1497.76, + "text": "are the ones that are supposed to feed" + }, + { + "start": 1499.279, + "text": "forward sensory information from the" + }, + { + "start": 1501.279, + "text": "back of the brain to the front of the" + }, + { + "start": 1502.64, + "text": "brain. And the deep layers are the ones" + }, + { + "start": 1505.6, + "text": "that feed back information anatomically." + }, + { + "start": 1507.84, + "text": "We know for long time now, half a" + }, + { + "start": 1510.159, + "text": "century more, that the deep layers are" + }, + { + "start": 1512.64, + "text": "the ones feeding back information. So" + }, + { + "start": 1514.799, + "text": "these these rhythms should in fact map" + }, + { + "start": 1517.279, + "text": "onto these layers of cortex. Well, in" + }, + { + "start": 1519.52, + "text": "fact, they do, or else I probably" + }, + { + "start": 1520.88, + "text": "wouldn't be talking about it. We've mass" + }, + { + "start": 1523.12, + "text": "evidence and and developed a model where" + }, + { + "start": 1525.12, + "text": "we show that the feedback information" + }, + { + "start": 1527.279, + "text": "carried by alpha beta is feeding back" + }, + { + "start": 1529.44, + "text": "information in cortex and that has an" + }, + { + "start": 1532.32, + "text": "inhibitory influence on the gamma being" + }, + { + "start": 1535.279, + "text": "and spiking being fed forward, sensory" + }, + { + "start": 1537.76, + "text": "information being fed forward in the" + }, + { + "start": 1539.12, + "text": "superficial layers of cortex." + }, + { + "start": 1541.679, + "text": "And I mentioned this because we've we" + }, + { + "start": 1543.36, + "text": "first developed this this uh found made" + }, + { + "start": 1545.76, + "text": "this discovery in the frontal cortex." + }, + { + "start": 1548.159, + "text": "We've since since branched out and" + }, + { + "start": 1549.919, + "text": "studied all over cortex and we saw the" + }, + { + "start": 1552.159, + "text": "same motif gamma feed forward bottom up" + }, + { + "start": 1555.6, + "text": "sensory alpha beta um feedback ex" + }, + { + "start": 1559.84, + "text": "executive control we've seen the same" + }, + { + "start": 1561.919, + "text": "theme all over cortex 20 plus cortical" + }, + { + "start": 1565.44, + "text": "layers and in four different species and" + }, + { + "start": 1567.52, + "text": "when you see something this common and" + }, + { + "start": 1569.36, + "text": "this ubiquitous across cortex and across" + }, + { + "start": 1571.36, + "text": "species you know it's doing something" + }, + { + "start": 1573.12, + "text": "fundamental to cortical function" + }, + { + "start": 1576.4, + "text": "and here's the way it works. And here's" + }, + { + "start": 1578.159, + "text": "how can I can I ask a question? Uh so uh" + }, + { + "start": 1582.559, + "text": "in the previous slide or two slides ago" + }, + { + "start": 1585.36, + "text": "um I think the one before this uh yeah" + }, + { + "start": 1590.08, + "text": "so I think uh what you uh said here is" + }, + { + "start": 1593.44, + "text": "that the the waves and the spikes are" + }, + { + "start": 1596.24, + "text": "phase loft right?" + }, + { + "start": 1597.6, + "text": ">> Yeah." + }, + { + "start": 1598.32, + "text": ">> Uh and the next slide uh you showed that" + }, + { + "start": 1601.909, + "text": "Uh and the next slide uh you showed that" + }, + { + "start": 1601.919, + "text": "uh uh they have this sort of uh" + }, + { + "start": 1604.24, + "text": "inhibitory effect. The waves have" + }, + { + "start": 1606.0, + "text": "inhibited effect on the spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1607.59, + "text": "ed effect on the spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1607.6, + "text": "activity. So that means that they cannot" + }, + { + "start": 1609.36, + "text": "be faced off like they there has to be" + }, + { + "start": 1611.279, + "text": "some sort of temporal separation between" + }, + { + "start": 1613.279, + "text": "the" + }, + { + "start": 1613.6, + "text": ">> well there's a lot of electrical there's" + }, + { + "start": 1614.88, + "text": "a lot of electrical influences going on" + }, + { + "start": 1617.279, + "text": "that that's that that's beyond spiking." + }, + { + "start": 1619.52, + "text": "Okay spiking your average cortical" + }, + { + "start": 1621.6, + "text": "neuron only spikes about 10 to 15 hertz" + }, + { + "start": 1623.84, + "text": "and it gives little bursts of spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1625.279, + "text": "then it's quiet most time little burst" + }, + { + "start": 1627.039, + "text": "of spiking. So much of the activity" + }, + { + "start": 1629.6, + "text": "going on in your cortex is actually" + }, + { + "start": 1631.36, + "text": "electrical waves which are happening" + }, + { + "start": 1632.559, + "text": "100% of the time. So a lot of those" + }, + { + "start": 1634.4, + "text": "influences are happening independ" + }, + { + "start": 1635.84, + "text": "independent of spiking." + }, + { + "start": 1640.0, + "text": ">> Thank you." + }, + { + "start": 1640.72, + "text": ">> Can I ask another question?" + }, + { + "start": 1643.029, + "text": "Can I ask another question?" + }, + { + "start": 1643.039, + "text": ">> Uh I if if it's really important yes but" + }, + { + "start": 1645.75, + "text": "Uh I if if it's really important yes but" + }, + { + "start": 1645.76, + "text": "but if I keep getting interruptions then" + }, + { + "start": 1647.039, + "text": "we're" + }, + { + "start": 1647.6, + "text": ">> okay I will ask later." + }, + { + "start": 1648.72, + "text": ">> Yeah please ask for later. Otherwise you" + }, + { + "start": 1650.149, + "text": "Yeah please ask for later. Otherwise you" + }, + { + "start": 1650.159, + "text": "know you when you give a talk somewhere" + }, + { + "start": 1651.52, + "text": "you time at a certain time and then if" + }, + { + "start": 1653.36, + "text": "you get interruptions then you go long" + }, + { + "start": 1654.799, + "text": "and if you don't and if you don't get" + }, + { + "start": 1655.919, + "text": "interruptions then you go short. So I'm" + }, + { + "start": 1658.0, + "text": "not if you have to something something" + }, + { + "start": 1659.6, + "text": "is really unclear please stop me. But" + }, + { + "start": 1661.44, + "text": "other than that, I I hope we can save" + }, + { + "start": 1662.96, + "text": "questions for the end, please." + }, + { + "start": 1667.039, + "text": "But thank you for your interest." + }, + { + "start": 1669.679, + "text": "Okay. So, here's how it works. Um, and" + }, + { + "start": 1672.72, + "text": "here's how we're going to how these this" + }, + { + "start": 1674.24, + "text": "this idea of these these gamma and beta" + }, + { + "start": 1678.24, + "text": "um influences can explain this prop. We" + }, + { + "start": 1681.12, + "text": "explain this property of big selectivity" + }, + { + "start": 1682.799, + "text": "I told you about earlier. We incorporate" + }, + { + "start": 1684.72, + "text": "this model called spatial computing. And" + }, + { + "start": 1687.039, + "text": "the idea is these alpha beta are having" + }, + { + "start": 1689.36, + "text": "this inhibitory influence on spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1691.12, + "text": "activity in cortex and they act as a" + }, + { + "start": 1693.2, + "text": "negative network space that the brain" + }, + { + "start": 1695.44, + "text": "uses as a coding dimension. So" + }, + { + "start": 1697.52, + "text": "essentially what gamma gamma and spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1700.0, + "text": "is kind of like spray paint spraying" + }, + { + "start": 1701.76, + "text": "energy into into your cortex from the" + }, + { + "start": 1704.96, + "text": "outside world sensory information. And" + }, + { + "start": 1707.36, + "text": "these alpha beta signals act like" + }, + { + "start": 1710.159, + "text": "stencils that prevent neurons from" + }, + { + "start": 1713.44, + "text": "spiking. And as a result, the spiking um" + }, + { + "start": 1717.44, + "text": "um being um associated with sensory" + }, + { + "start": 1719.44, + "text": "information can only be expressed in" + }, + { + "start": 1721.679, + "text": "certain parts of your cortex, not" + }, + { + "start": 1723.2, + "text": "everywhere. And your brain controls" + }, + { + "start": 1725.2, + "text": "these alpha beta um influences like" + }, + { + "start": 1727.6, + "text": "stencils to control where your brain" + }, + { + "start": 1730.32, + "text": "cortex can become activated and it uses" + }, + { + "start": 1732.48, + "text": "as a computational tool. So explain in" + }, + { + "start": 1735.52, + "text": "terms of mixed selectivity. Remember we" + }, + { + "start": 1736.96, + "text": "had these neurons that show this context" + }, + { + "start": 1739.12, + "text": "nonlinear" + }, + { + "start": 1740.72, + "text": "um context dependent spiking where a" + }, + { + "start": 1742.88, + "text": "neuron will show one pattern of" + }, + { + "start": 1744.48, + "text": "selectivity for these objects in one" + }, + { + "start": 1746.559, + "text": "context first and another um pattern of" + }, + { + "start": 1750.0, + "text": "selectivity to these objects spiking to" + }, + { + "start": 1752.64, + "text": "these objects in another context that" + }, + { + "start": 1754.88, + "text": "can be explained by these alpha beta" + }, + { + "start": 1756.48, + "text": "stencils. The idea is there's one alpha" + }, + { + "start": 1759.039, + "text": "beta stencil a pattern that corresponds" + }, + { + "start": 1761.6, + "text": "to the operation of being first and as a" + }, + { + "start": 1764.799, + "text": "result these neurons can't spike and" + }, + { + "start": 1766.88, + "text": "only these neurons can spike to the" + }, + { + "start": 1768.64, + "text": "butterfly if that's the thing that" + }, + { + "start": 1769.919, + "text": "happens to appear first. And then you" + }, + { + "start": 1772.24, + "text": "have another pattern that corresponds to" + }, + { + "start": 1773.919, + "text": "the operation the context of being" + }, + { + "start": 1776.159, + "text": "second. And now only these neurons can" + }, + { + "start": 1778.64, + "text": "respond. These neurons that are not" + }, + { + "start": 1780.559, + "text": "being inhibited only they can respond to" + }, + { + "start": 1782.88, + "text": "the padlock. and you just change the" + }, + { + "start": 1784.88, + "text": "different objects and you get different" + }, + { + "start": 1786.159, + "text": "patterns of neurons corresponding to the" + }, + { + "start": 1788.24, + "text": "different being allowed to respond to" + }, + { + "start": 1790.159, + "text": "the different objects in different" + }, + { + "start": 1791.279, + "text": "contexts and that's how you get this" + }, + { + "start": 1792.96, + "text": "context nonlinear dependent behavior. So" + }, + { + "start": 1796.07, + "text": "nonlinear dependent behavior. So" + }, + { + "start": 1796.08, + "text": "the alpha beta patterns control which" + }, + { + "start": 1797.76, + "text": "neurons can spike in the different" + }, + { + "start": 1799.52, + "text": "behavioral contexts" + }, + { + "start": 1801.679, + "text": "and this results in neurons with this" + }, + { + "start": 1803.6, + "text": "context dependent spiking and all the" + }, + { + "start": 1805.44, + "text": "computational benefits of mix" + }, + { + "start": 1806.799, + "text": "selectivity." + }, + { + "start": 1809.12, + "text": "So why why so what this brings us to is" + }, + { + "start": 1812.88, + "text": "the idea that brain waves are ideal for" + }, + { + "start": 1814.88, + "text": "control and organization your cortex for" + }, + { + "start": 1816.88, + "text": "exerting this top down control over over" + }, + { + "start": 1819.2, + "text": "cortex wave functions are simple and" + }, + { + "start": 1821.76, + "text": "efficient imagine that I want to control" + }, + { + "start": 1824.48, + "text": "all these neurons in my brain in order" + }, + { + "start": 1826.799, + "text": "to do something like pay attention" + }, + { + "start": 1828.72, + "text": "process what a speaker is saying whatnot" + }, + { + "start": 1831.279, + "text": "how do you how do you do how do you do" + }, + { + "start": 1832.96, + "text": "that you can't do it by this" + }, + { + "start": 1834.64, + "text": "connectionism model as I mentioned" + }, + { + "start": 1836.64, + "text": "earlier because connectionism" + }, + { + "start": 1838.96, + "text": "would require that we shift around" + }, + { + "start": 1841.44, + "text": "connections constantly induce. We have" + }, + { + "start": 1842.799, + "text": "to change around all the connections in" + }, + { + "start": 1844.48, + "text": "order to get these context dependent" + }, + { + "start": 1846.799, + "text": "neurons. That seems computationally" + }, + { + "start": 1849.44, + "text": "intractable. However, wave functions are" + }, + { + "start": 1852.48, + "text": "simple and efficient. Rather than" + }, + { + "start": 1854.399, + "text": "controlling the individuals one by one," + }, + { + "start": 1855.919, + "text": "you can use a wave to guide an entire" + }, + { + "start": 1857.52, + "text": "group. and try to if these if these uh" + }, + { + "start": 1860.399, + "text": "people in this crowd here are individual" + }, + { + "start": 1862.399, + "text": "neurons in my cortex I can produce this" + }, + { + "start": 1864.799, + "text": "wave pattern under the old hypothesis" + }, + { + "start": 1867.039, + "text": "the connectionism by trying to tell each" + }, + { + "start": 1869.44, + "text": "individual person what to do but if you" + }, + { + "start": 1872.159, + "text": "throw this wave function across the" + }, + { + "start": 1873.76, + "text": "crowd now you get a simple function that" + }, + { + "start": 1876.32, + "text": "controls the crowd and makes or" + }, + { + "start": 1877.76, + "text": "organized behavior" + }, + { + "start": 1879.919, + "text": "and sure enough your brain does this all" + }, + { + "start": 1881.76, + "text": "the time so these oscillations these" + }, + { + "start": 1884.159, + "text": "electrical waves I'm talking about" + }, + { + "start": 1885.76, + "text": "they're not just jumping up and down in" + }, + { + "start": 1887.679, + "text": "a like a like a standing wave, like a" + }, + { + "start": 1889.6, + "text": "jump rope. They form patterns that" + }, + { + "start": 1892.24, + "text": "travel and move across your cortex, much" + }, + { + "start": 1895.039, + "text": "like fans doing the wave in a stadium." + }, + { + "start": 1897.44, + "text": "So, here's a recording from the frontal" + }, + { + "start": 1899.44, + "text": "cortex of a non-human primate. And what" + }, + { + "start": 1902.24, + "text": "it shows is an array of electrodes. The" + }, + { + "start": 1904.48, + "text": "arrays are separated by about a" + }, + { + "start": 1906.08, + "text": "millimeter or two. Each of the squares" + }, + { + "start": 1908.799, + "text": "is a different electrode in in the" + }, + { + "start": 1911.6, + "text": "frontal cortex of the animal. And what" + }, + { + "start": 1914.32, + "text": "the colors are are electric voltage" + }, + { + "start": 1916.32, + "text": "values relative to a reference" + }, + { + "start": 1918.08, + "text": "electrode." + }, + { + "start": 1919.76, + "text": "And this this is raw unprocessed data." + }, + { + "start": 1923.039, + "text": "And what you can see is the electrical" + }, + { + "start": 1925.12, + "text": "voltages are forming this rotating wave" + }, + { + "start": 1927.519, + "text": "that's rotating counterclockwise" + }, + { + "start": 1930.48, + "text": "across the array." + }, + { + "start": 1932.72, + "text": "So much like much like the um a stadium" + }, + { + "start": 1935.519, + "text": "crowd can organize using waves, your" + }, + { + "start": 1938.799, + "text": "brain your brain is or organizing itself" + }, + { + "start": 1941.039, + "text": "using waves. These waves, these" + }, + { + "start": 1942.72, + "text": "oscillations aren't like pingpong balls" + }, + { + "start": 1944.48, + "text": "bouncing around your cortex randomly." + }, + { + "start": 1946.399, + "text": "They're highly highly organized. And" + }, + { + "start": 1948.64, + "text": "whenever you see organization in the" + }, + { + "start": 1950.24, + "text": "brain, organization equals function." + }, + { + "start": 1953.6, + "text": "Function invariably follows from" + }, + { + "start": 1955.279, + "text": "organization because or organ" + }, + { + "start": 1956.96, + "text": "organization means predictability." + }, + { + "start": 1960.23, + "text": "means predictability." + }, + { + "start": 1960.24, + "text": "And waves are also natural way produced" + }, + { + "start": 1962.399, + "text": "not just simple organization like this" + }, + { + "start": 1964.0, + "text": "to produce complex organization. And for" + }, + { + "start": 1967.039, + "text": "a metaphor for that, here's a a video of" + }, + { + "start": 1970.399, + "text": "grains of sand on a speaker. And when" + }, + { + "start": 1973.12, + "text": "you play different musical notes, you" + }, + { + "start": 1974.559, + "text": "get you get the the sand forms different" + }, + { + "start": 1977.279, + "text": "patterns. Now, obviously, I'm not" + }, + { + "start": 1979.6, + "text": "talking about shifting around neurons in" + }, + { + "start": 1981.84, + "text": "your cortex. But think of the sound" + }, + { + "start": 1983.76, + "text": "waves as electrical brain waves," + }, + { + "start": 1985.44, + "text": "electrical field waves. I mean, like uh" + }, + { + "start": 1987.44, + "text": "they're the same physics, waves are" + }, + { + "start": 1989.2, + "text": "waves. And the sand instead is spiking" + }, + { + "start": 1991.84, + "text": "patterns of individual neurons." + }, + { + "start": 1994.48, + "text": "Now, what your brain needs to do to" + }, + { + "start": 1996.159, + "text": "organize, it needs to somehow control" + }, + { + "start": 1997.6, + "text": "all these neurons. So, they're doing" + }, + { + "start": 1998.88, + "text": "something in an organized way. Imagine" + }, + { + "start": 2001.6, + "text": "trying to make these patterns, this" + }, + { + "start": 2003.279, + "text": "organization here. Imagine trying to" + }, + { + "start": 2004.799, + "text": "make this organization" + }, + { + "start": 2006.96, + "text": "by organizing the sand grain by grain." + }, + { + "start": 2010.399, + "text": "It just be possibly complicated. But" + }, + { + "start": 2013.2, + "text": "organization is a natural outcome of the" + }, + { + "start": 2015.76, + "text": "influence of wave patterns. You have" + }, + { + "start": 2017.279, + "text": "wave patterns, they form, they create" + }, + { + "start": 2018.799, + "text": "interference patterns, and you get you" + }, + { + "start": 2020.799, + "text": "get this natural organization that falls" + }, + { + "start": 2022.48, + "text": "out of it. So this is basic physics that" + }, + { + "start": 2024.64, + "text": "evolution could exploit." + }, + { + "start": 2027.519, + "text": "And for further um demonstration of this" + }, + { + "start": 2030.32, + "text": "of this for a demonstration of this" + }, + { + "start": 2031.919, + "text": "principle, here's a recent paper um we" + }, + { + "start": 2034.559, + "text": "published LA last year where we show a" + }, + { + "start": 2037.279, + "text": "direct connection between these" + }, + { + "start": 2038.559, + "text": "traveling waves are rotating around the" + }, + { + "start": 2040.0, + "text": "cortex and changing spiking patterns in" + }, + { + "start": 2042.559, + "text": "cortex. Now what I'm showing here is not" + }, + { + "start": 2045.83, + "text": ". Now what I'm showing here is not" + }, + { + "start": 2045.84, + "text": "electrical field waves anymore. Not I'm" + }, + { + "start": 2047.6, + "text": "not showing brain waves. I'm showing" + }, + { + "start": 2048.879, + "text": "patterns of neural spiking from 200" + }, + { + "start": 2051.679, + "text": "individually recorded neurons of sorry" + }, + { + "start": 2054.079, + "text": "200 simultaneously recorded neurons but" + }, + { + "start": 2056.159, + "text": "200 individual neurons and what it shows" + }, + { + "start": 2058.8, + "text": "is something called subspace coding. Now" + }, + { + "start": 2061.76, + "text": "what subspace coding is it's a measure" + }, + { + "start": 2063.839, + "text": "of the var of shared variance of the" + }, + { + "start": 2065.679, + "text": "spiking patterns. Now if I record from" + }, + { + "start": 2068.72, + "text": "200 neurons we did record from 200" + }, + { + "start": 2070.48, + "text": "neurons I can create a 200dimensional" + }, + { + "start": 2073.2, + "text": "space to explain how these neurons are" + }, + { + "start": 2075.599, + "text": "spiking. That's self-evident. It's" + }, + { + "start": 2077.44, + "text": "self-descriptive. 200 neurons. Each" + }, + { + "start": 2079.119, + "text": "neuron has his own vector. And the" + }, + { + "start": 2081.28, + "text": "spiking is the distance along the" + }, + { + "start": 2082.8, + "text": "vector. Bob's your uncle. You can do" + }, + { + "start": 2085.2, + "text": "that. But with subspace coding, we ask" + }, + { + "start": 2087.2, + "text": "the question, how many dimensions do I" + }, + { + "start": 2089.679, + "text": "actually need to explain what these 200" + }, + { + "start": 2091.52, + "text": "neurons are doing? And it could be 2,000" + }, + { + "start": 2093.359, + "text": "neurons. How many dimensions do I need" + }, + { + "start": 2095.75, + "text": ". How many dimensions do I need" + }, + { + "start": 2095.76, + "text": "to explain what these 200 neurons are" + }, + { + "start": 2097.2, + "text": "doing? And it turns out you can explain" + }, + { + "start": 2099.52, + "text": "them what these neurons are doing in" + }, + { + "start": 2101.28, + "text": "just three dimensions. Just three" + }, + { + "start": 2103.04, + "text": "dimensions." + }, + { + "start": 2104.64, + "text": "And what that means is that spiking in" + }, + { + "start": 2107.2, + "text": "cortex is highly coordinated. It's not" + }, + { + "start": 2110.32, + "text": "like insects buzzing chaotically in the" + }, + { + "start": 2112.64, + "text": "in the night sky. Cortical spiking is" + }, + { + "start": 2115.28, + "text": "more like a murmmoration of birds. Birds" + }, + { + "start": 2117.359, + "text": "flocking in the sky together in a highly" + }, + { + "start": 2119.839, + "text": "organized fashion." + }, + { + "start": 2122.4, + "text": "That's what spiking actually is in" + }, + { + "start": 2123.92, + "text": "cortex. Highly organized. Now you guys" + }, + { + "start": 2127.52, + "text": "no doubt get to where I'm going with" + }, + { + "start": 2129.04, + "text": "this. How do you produce this kind of" + }, + { + "start": 2130.32, + "text": "organization? Well, you can throw a wave" + }, + { + "start": 2132.32, + "text": "across it, right? That's what I've been" + }, + { + "start": 2133.839, + "text": "arguing. Well, that's exactly what we" + }, + { + "start": 2135.68, + "text": "found. We this we when we record from" + }, + { + "start": 2137.92, + "text": "the same electrodes that we record this" + }, + { + "start": 2140.24, + "text": "spiking activity showing the this highly" + }, + { + "start": 2142.8, + "text": "organized movement of spiking patterns," + }, + { + "start": 2145.119, + "text": "we see traveling waves rotating around" + }, + { + "start": 2147.68, + "text": "the around the surface of cortex. So" + }, + { + "start": 2150.64, + "text": "traveling so spiking activity rotate" + }, + { + "start": 2153.76, + "text": "I'll explain what the rotation is in a" + }, + { + "start": 2155.28, + "text": "moment. These spiking patterns are" + }, + { + "start": 2157.119, + "text": "moving around this computational space" + }, + { + "start": 2159.68, + "text": "used to represent how spiking is" + }, + { + "start": 2161.839, + "text": "changing in cortex and we find a" + }, + { + "start": 2163.92, + "text": "correspondence of a wave moving across" + }, + { + "start": 2166.32, + "text": "the surface of cortex. Now brief" + }, + { + "start": 2168.96, + "text": "explanation this is a working memory" + }, + { + "start": 2171.28, + "text": "task and what we're looking at is the" + }, + { + "start": 2172.56, + "text": "memory delay the task where the where" + }, + { + "start": 2174.4, + "text": "the non-human primate has to hold one of" + }, + { + "start": 2177.2, + "text": "four objects in working memory in mind" + }, + { + "start": 2179.599, + "text": "over the short memory delay. And what" + }, + { + "start": 2181.839, + "text": "the four colors represent are the four" + }, + { + "start": 2184.32, + "text": "different objects the animal's holding" + }, + { + "start": 2186.4, + "text": "in mind. And you see separation between" + }, + { + "start": 2189.359, + "text": "the lines, which means that the spiking" + }, + { + "start": 2190.96, + "text": "patterns are conveying information about" + }, + { + "start": 2192.4, + "text": "which object the animal's holding in" + }, + { + "start": 2194.4, + "text": "working memory. Okay. Now, what's" + }, + { + "start": 2196.96, + "text": "happening at time zero in the middle of" + }, + { + "start": 2199.04, + "text": "the delay? We're distracting the animal." + }, + { + "start": 2201.2, + "text": "We're showing we're trying to distract" + }, + { + "start": 2202.4, + "text": "the animal by showing it flashing a" + }, + { + "start": 2204.56, + "text": "picture on the screen trying to knock it" + }, + { + "start": 2206.32, + "text": "off its game. And that works about the" + }, + { + "start": 2209.119, + "text": "knocks the animal's performance down." + }, + { + "start": 2210.64, + "text": "makes the animal forget about 10 to 15%" + }, + { + "start": 2212.96, + "text": "of the time. So, what's happening at" + }, + { + "start": 2214.96, + "text": "time zero? We're distracting the animal." + }, + { + "start": 2217.04, + "text": "And what you see is the neurons are" + }, + { + "start": 2219.2, + "text": "being knocked out of where they should" + }, + { + "start": 2220.48, + "text": "be by the distraction" + }, + { + "start": 2223.04, + "text": "and then something in the brain is" + }, + { + "start": 2224.88, + "text": "gradually steering the neuron patterns" + }, + { + "start": 2227.2, + "text": "back to where they were before. So, this" + }, + { + "start": 2229.359, + "text": "rotating pattern here is a recovery from" + }, + { + "start": 2233.599, + "text": "the distraction." + }, + { + "start": 2235.839, + "text": "And we see these rotating. So these" + }, + { + "start": 2237.52, + "text": "rotating waves in cortex are we think" + }, + { + "start": 2240.0, + "text": "are are producing you see a direct" + }, + { + "start": 2241.92, + "text": "correspondence producing this recovery" + }, + { + "start": 2244.4, + "text": "from distraction." + }, + { + "start": 2246.24, + "text": "Now let me emphasize here that what" + }, + { + "start": 2247.76, + "text": "we're seeing here is a is a we're" + }, + { + "start": 2249.359, + "text": "mapping a mathematical construction of" + }, + { + "start": 2251.92, + "text": "neural computation that in principle" + }, + { + "start": 2254.4, + "text": "doesn't have to have any relationship" + }, + { + "start": 2256.0, + "text": "whatsoever to anything happening on the" + }, + { + "start": 2258.72, + "text": "mapped on the surface of your cortex." + }, + { + "start": 2260.56, + "text": "But it does. we'd see a correspondence" + }, + { + "start": 2262.64, + "text": "between a mathematical construction of" + }, + { + "start": 2264.32, + "text": "neural spiking and and a physical" + }, + { + "start": 2266.72, + "text": "movement of waves across the surface of" + }, + { + "start": 2268.24, + "text": "cortex. And what that suggests to me is" + }, + { + "start": 2271.04, + "text": "somehow these waves are actually" + }, + { + "start": 2273.28, + "text": "involved in computation in neural" + }, + { + "start": 2276.0, + "text": "computation." + }, + { + "start": 2278.4, + "text": "And sure enough, waves can perform" + }, + { + "start": 2280.72, + "text": "computation. You don't need digital" + }, + { + "start": 2282.32, + "text": "computers digit perform digital" + }, + { + "start": 2284.71, + "text": "ers digit perform digital" + }, + { + "start": 2284.72, + "text": "computation to do computation." + }, + { + "start": 2287.109, + "text": "ation to do computation." + }, + { + "start": 2287.119, + "text": "In fact, analog computation has been" + }, + { + "start": 2289.76, + "text": "around for thousands of years. Digital" + }, + { + "start": 2291.2, + "text": "is a bit of a an engineering" + }, + { + "start": 2292.88, + "text": "convenience, a bit of a detour. And what" + }, + { + "start": 2295.2, + "text": "you see here is I've illustrated analog" + }, + { + "start": 2297.28, + "text": "computing by showing addition and" + }, + { + "start": 2299.52, + "text": "subtraction using two sine waves. Here's" + }, + { + "start": 2302.16, + "text": "one wave in blue moving um left to" + }, + { + "start": 2304.64, + "text": "right. Another um um wave in this amber" + }, + { + "start": 2308.8, + "text": "orange like color moving uh right to" + }, + { + "start": 2310.72, + "text": "left. And the dotted line shows what" + }, + { + "start": 2312.96, + "text": "happens when you sum the two waves" + }, + { + "start": 2314.24, + "text": "together. And if you sum it just this" + }, + { + "start": 2316.32, + "text": "one, there's a space here on the on the" + }, + { + "start": 2318.4, + "text": "uh x axis and amplitude in the y" + }, + { + "start": 2320.8, + "text": "amplitude on the y- axis. If we sum" + }, + { + "start": 2322.72, + "text": "right here, we could see we're doing" + }, + { + "start": 2324.16, + "text": "addition subtraction just by the waves" + }, + { + "start": 2325.92, + "text": "coming together. Okay, so how the waves" + }, + { + "start": 2329.76, + "text": "interact models the equation. I've" + }, + { + "start": 2331.44, + "text": "modeled addition and subtraction by just" + }, + { + "start": 2333.68, + "text": "having two simple slide waves come" + }, + { + "start": 2335.2, + "text": "straight at one another." + }, + { + "start": 2337.68, + "text": "And" + }, + { + "start": 2340.16, + "text": "all the values are car all the values I" + }, + { + "start": 2342.24, + "text": "might want to add and subtract are" + }, + { + "start": 2343.52, + "text": "carried in carried in different parts of" + }, + { + "start": 2345.28, + "text": "these two of this blue and amber" + }, + { + "start": 2347.2, + "text": "traveling wave. Right? So when the waves" + }, + { + "start": 2350.48, + "text": "interact the entire equation all the" + }, + { + "start": 2352.8, + "text": "addition subtraction across all these" + }, + { + "start": 2354.56, + "text": "different values all the addition" + }, + { + "start": 2356.079, + "text": "subtraction across all the space all" + }, + { + "start": 2358.16, + "text": "happens simultaneously you get pure" + }, + { + "start": 2361.04, + "text": "parallel computation inherently parallel" + }, + { + "start": 2363.2, + "text": "computation whereas digital is" + }, + { + "start": 2365.44, + "text": "inherently sequential." + }, + { + "start": 2367.68, + "text": "And this is just one dimension and one" + }, + { + "start": 2369.92, + "text": "frequency." + }, + { + "start": 2371.44, + "text": "Okay, your brain could do this across" + }, + { + "start": 2373.52, + "text": "multiple frequencies anywhere from one" + }, + { + "start": 2375.599, + "text": "hertz to 100 hertz and can do it in" + }, + { + "start": 2378.48, + "text": "three dimensions. That's a lot of space" + }, + { + "start": 2380.88, + "text": "to do a lot of complex computation." + }, + { + "start": 2383.68, + "text": "And this isn't a conjecture. You could" + }, + { + "start": 2385.359, + "text": "do complex math with analog computation." + }, + { + "start": 2388.4, + "text": "There's many modern examples of this," + }, + { + "start": 2390.64, + "text": "but one example from hundred years ago" + }, + { + "start": 2393.52, + "text": "was MIT's own Vanir Bush, right across" + }, + { + "start": 2396.24, + "text": "the street from where I'm sitting right" + }, + { + "start": 2397.52, + "text": "now, built an analog differential" + }, + { + "start": 2399.76, + "text": "analyzer that solved 18 variable" + }, + { + "start": 2402.56, + "text": "differential equations using wheels and" + }, + { + "start": 2404.96, + "text": "discs. Wheels and discs and waves are" + }, + { + "start": 2407.119, + "text": "the same thing. And what he did is he" + }, + { + "start": 2409.76, + "text": "set up the wheels and disc to model" + }, + { + "start": 2411.359, + "text": "which differential equation he wants to" + }, + { + "start": 2413.28, + "text": "calculate. And then when he turns the" + }, + { + "start": 2415.04, + "text": "crank the whole equation gets to sol" + }, + { + "start": 2417.2, + "text": "solved in parallel. So the setup time" + }, + { + "start": 2420.16, + "text": "the main time here was setting up the" + }, + { + "start": 2422.079, + "text": "wheels and disc to model the equation." + }, + { + "start": 2423.92, + "text": "But the computation takes place" + }, + { + "start": 2425.52, + "text": "instantaneously. In the brain we don't" + }, + { + "start": 2427.76, + "text": "have to set up wheels and disc. We can" + }, + { + "start": 2428.96, + "text": "just have waves are flexible. We we can" + }, + { + "start": 2431.04, + "text": "model equations on on the on the fly and" + }, + { + "start": 2433.52, + "text": "do parallel computing when waves come" + }, + { + "start": 2435.68, + "text": "together. And analog computing as I've" + }, + { + "start": 2438.8, + "text": "hinted at is a huge advantage over" + }, + { + "start": 2440.72, + "text": "digital. Analog computing is is a way" + }, + { + "start": 2444.32, + "text": "vastly more efficient. It's" + }, + { + "start": 2446.24, + "text": "informationrich. You know the real world" + }, + { + "start": 2448.32, + "text": "is made up of continuous signals. But if" + }, + { + "start": 2450.48, + "text": "you want to do digital computation then" + }, + { + "start": 2451.839, + "text": "you got you got to arbitrarily divide up" + }, + { + "start": 2453.76, + "text": "the world into ones and zeros which is" + }, + { + "start": 2455.44, + "text": "already highly inefficient. But again" + }, + { + "start": 2458.079, + "text": "the real advantage is that that analog" + }, + { + "start": 2460.48, + "text": "computation is purely parallel. When the" + }, + { + "start": 2462.72, + "text": "waves interact, all the variables" + }, + { + "start": 2464.319, + "text": "compute simultaneously. Digital" + }, + { + "start": 2466.24, + "text": "computation is sequential. That both" + }, + { + "start": 2468.63, + "text": "ation is sequential. That both" + }, + { + "start": 2468.64, + "text": "these things are a huge advantage over" + }, + { + "start": 2470.4, + "text": "over digital computation." + }, + { + "start": 2472.8, + "text": "Think about AI. AI based on digital" + }, + { + "start": 2475.119, + "text": "computation and this connection as a" + }, + { + "start": 2476.72, + "text": "model consumes enormous amounts of" + }, + { + "start": 2479.119, + "text": "energy. They're building nuclear power" + }, + { + "start": 2480.72, + "text": "plants to to um to power AI." + }, + { + "start": 2486.079, + "text": "They're building nuclear power plants to" + }, + { + "start": 2488.0, + "text": "power AI. And here's a graph showing the" + }, + { + "start": 2491.04, + "text": "total output of the of produced by the" + }, + { + "start": 2493.119, + "text": "state of Virginia alone is about a" + }, + { + "start": 2495.2, + "text": "quarter of its goes to these AI um" + }, + { + "start": 2497.52, + "text": "powered data centers which are causing" + }, + { + "start": 2499.76, + "text": "brownouts and neighborhoods around them" + }, + { + "start": 2501.2, + "text": "and stuff. By 2030 is projected as much" + }, + { + "start": 2503.68, + "text": "as half of the power that one that" + }, + { + "start": 2505.839, + "text": "Virginia produces will be devoted to AI" + }, + { + "start": 2509.2, + "text": "data centers. Okay. the projection AI" + }, + { + "start": 2512.319, + "text": "projection power demands outstrip the" + }, + { + "start": 2515.44, + "text": "energy the ability of the energy supply" + }, + { + "start": 2518.0, + "text": "to provide it in the future." + }, + { + "start": 2520.56, + "text": "This is not the way biology works." + }, + { + "start": 2523.76, + "text": "Biology does not solve problems by" + }, + { + "start": 2525.839, + "text": "throwing huge amounts of energy at it. A" + }, + { + "start": 2528.56, + "text": "pretty good definition of life is local" + }, + { + "start": 2531.2, + "text": "reverses in entropy using as little" + }, + { + "start": 2533.44, + "text": "energy as possible." + }, + { + "start": 2535.599, + "text": "Evolution favors energy efficiency and" + }, + { + "start": 2538.319, + "text": "your far more capable brain runs on just" + }, + { + "start": 2540.96, + "text": "20 watts of power. The power of a dim" + }, + { + "start": 2542.8, + "text": "light bulb and your brain is more" + }, + { + "start": 2544.72, + "text": "powerful than any AI system out there." + }, + { + "start": 2548.24, + "text": "So clearly our brains are doing" + }, + { + "start": 2549.68, + "text": "something different. And I think it's" + }, + { + "start": 2551.52, + "text": "not connectism and it's not not digital" + }, + { + "start": 2553.76, + "text": "logic like comput computations. It's" + }, + { + "start": 2556.4, + "text": "wave-based organization and wave-based" + }, + { + "start": 2558.88, + "text": "analog computation. So in summary," + }, + { + "start": 2562.72, + "text": "brains we I think AI like connectionism" + }, + { + "start": 2566.8, + "text": "connectionism is not wrong and AI is not" + }, + { + "start": 2569.359, + "text": "wrong to use connectionism. It's a great" + }, + { + "start": 2571.04, + "text": "way to store information. Okay, great" + }, + { + "start": 2573.52, + "text": "way to store information in the long" + }, + { + "start": 2574.79, + "text": "in the long" + }, + { + "start": 2574.8, + "text": "term. But expressing information and" + }, + { + "start": 2576.88, + "text": "computing it may be a whole different" + }, + { + "start": 2578.48, + "text": "game especially for the high level" + }, + { + "start": 2580.4, + "text": "computation required by um you know" + }, + { + "start": 2583.119, + "text": "intelligence and cognition." + }, + { + "start": 2586.0, + "text": "Waves operate on the right scale. You're" + }, + { + "start": 2587.76, + "text": "not don't have to worry about" + }, + { + "start": 2588.72, + "text": "individuals and those you're you're" + }, + { + "start": 2590.48, + "text": "you're you're operating on whole" + }, + { + "start": 2592.319, + "text": "sections or crowds of neurons" + }, + { + "start": 2593.92, + "text": "simultaneously by a wave function which" + }, + { + "start": 2596.16, + "text": "is a simple function and they're" + }, + { + "start": 2598.72, + "text": "mathematically easy way can gain control" + }, + { + "start": 2601.119, + "text": "over a complex system and can they can" + }, + { + "start": 2603.92, + "text": "perform highly efficient analog comp" + }, + { + "start": 2608.88, + "text": "So I want to leave you with the thought" + }, + { + "start": 2610.319, + "text": "that cognition and consciousness is not" + }, + { + "start": 2612.48, + "text": "digital or logic gate or connectionism." + }, + { + "start": 2615.28, + "text": "It's analog" + }, + { + "start": 2617.359, + "text": "analog computation lets exist wave wave" + }, + { + "start": 2619.92, + "text": "patterns in your brain. These wave" + }, + { + "start": 2621.04, + "text": "patterns in the brain are patterns of" + }, + { + "start": 2622.95, + "text": "the brain are patterns of" + }, + { + "start": 2622.96, + "text": "excitation and inhibition. More energy" + }, + { + "start": 2625.52, + "text": "less energy. That is how your brain" + }, + { + "start": 2627.68, + "text": "works. That's how your brain works." + }, + { + "start": 2629.76, + "text": "Okay. So what analog computation allows" + }, + { + "start": 2632.4, + "text": "is one pattern of excitation, one wave" + }, + { + "start": 2635.2, + "text": "pattern in your cortex to come together" + }, + { + "start": 2637.119, + "text": "and interact with another wave pattern" + }, + { + "start": 2638.96, + "text": "and generate a third wave pattern, a" + }, + { + "start": 2640.96, + "text": "brand new wave pattern in a" + }, + { + "start": 2642.8, + "text": "computationally principled predictable" + }, + { + "start": 2645.28, + "text": "way. And if it's predictable and" + }, + { + "start": 2647.04, + "text": "principle in that way, evolution could" + }, + { + "start": 2648.4, + "text": "take advantage of it." + }, + { + "start": 2650.88, + "text": "Now consciousness virtually every" + }, + { + "start": 2653.04, + "text": "biological theory of consciousness" + }, + { + "start": 2654.8, + "text": "proposes that consciousness requires" + }, + { + "start": 2657.28, + "text": "somehow your cortex be unified create" + }, + { + "start": 2659.839, + "text": "this metaansemble meta network that" + }, + { + "start": 2662.24, + "text": "unifies your cortex to create the" + }, + { + "start": 2664.319, + "text": "unified experience of consciousness." + }, + { + "start": 2665.91, + "text": "d experience of consciousness." + }, + { + "start": 2665.92, + "text": "That's what consciousness is. It's a" + }, + { + "start": 2667.119, + "text": "unified experience. So somehow your your" + }, + { + "start": 2669.599, + "text": "brain has to do this but they're very" + }, + { + "start": 2671.839, + "text": "vague on how exactly your brain does" + }, + { + "start": 2673.52, + "text": "this. Well, I want to suggest that when" + }, + { + "start": 2675.44, + "text": "brain wave patterns produced by analog" + }, + { + "start": 2677.44, + "text": "computation, when wave patterns come" + }, + { + "start": 2679.28, + "text": "together and produce new wave patterns" + }, + { + "start": 2681.68, + "text": "using analog computation, when these" + }, + { + "start": 2683.52, + "text": "wave patterns become large and" + }, + { + "start": 2685.68, + "text": "organized, large and organized enough to" + }, + { + "start": 2687.44, + "text": "bind the cortex into a unified state," + }, + { + "start": 2690.319, + "text": "the result is conscious experience. So," + }, + { + "start": 2692.96, + "text": "I thank you for your attention and I'm" + }, + { + "start": 2695.2, + "text": "more than happy to take questions now." + }, + { + "start": 2697.28, + "text": "Thank you." + }, + { + "start": 2702.0, + "text": ">>" + }, + { + "start": 2703.76, + "text": "Who want to go first?" + }, + { + "start": 2719.68, + "text": "I have a I have a question" + }, + { + "start": 2721.68, + "text": "that was very interesting. Um, so you" + }, + { + "start": 2725.04, + "text": "mentioned that the uh waves are a" + }, + { + "start": 2727.76, + "text": "natural way to produce complex" + }, + { + "start": 2729.76, + "text": "organization. And so we've been seeing" + }, + { + "start": 2732.88, + "text": "traveling waves inside frog embryos, but" + }, + { + "start": 2735.52, + "text": "also between them. And I'm wondering if" + }, + { + "start": 2738.24, + "text": "these waves could play like a similar" + }, + { + "start": 2740.079, + "text": "similar role in the brain during" + }, + { + "start": 2741.76, + "text": "cognitive processing and maybe also do" + }, + { + "start": 2744.319, + "text": "some analog computation. And I'm" + }, + { + "start": 2746.64, + "text": "wondering what your opinion is like what" + }, + { + "start": 2749.119, + "text": "does this non-neural wave need to call" + }, + { + "start": 2751.44, + "text": "it cognitive or brainike?" + }, + { + "start": 2754.64, + "text": ">> Oh, I mean waves are are useful physics" + }, + { + "start": 2757.28, + "text": "that your brain could exploit for a wide" + }, + { + "start": 2758.88, + "text": "variety of reasons. And much like you're" + }, + { + "start": 2760.24, + "text": "seeing in the frog embryo, you're" + }, + { + "start": 2761.44, + "text": "developing retina has ways moving across" + }, + { + "start": 2763.359, + "text": "it. So before you can even see, there's" + }, + { + "start": 2765.52, + "text": "these ways that move across your retina" + }, + { + "start": 2767.359, + "text": "that allow the the retina to organize" + }, + { + "start": 2769.52, + "text": "itself into into regular regular" + }, + { + "start": 2771.839, + "text": "patterns. So yeah and I you know Michael" + }, + { + "start": 2774.16, + "text": "has shown that uh you know electric" + }, + { + "start": 2776.0, + "text": "fields play a role in in um in" + }, + { + "start": 2778.72, + "text": "development in uh in um so you know wave" + }, + { + "start": 2784.64, + "text": "I I wouldn't say waves become conscious" + }, + { + "start": 2786.64, + "text": "wave electrical" + }, + { + "start": 2788.96, + "text": "biological systems produce electrical" + }, + { + "start": 2790.88, + "text": "fields and your nervous nervous systems" + }, + { + "start": 2794.0, + "text": "will naturally produce oscillations and" + }, + { + "start": 2795.839, + "text": "waves because your nervous system is" + }, + { + "start": 2797.359, + "text": "composed of things called recurrent" + }, + { + "start": 2798.8, + "text": "connections. neurons loop back on" + }, + { + "start": 2801.44, + "text": "themselves like snakes eating their own" + }, + { + "start": 2803.359, + "text": "tail and this happens on a short in a" + }, + { + "start": 2805.599, + "text": "short distance and also will cross long" + }, + { + "start": 2807.839, + "text": "distance in your cortex. So your whole" + }, + { + "start": 2809.76, + "text": "cortex your whole nervous system is set" + }, + { + "start": 2811.92, + "text": "up to produce these oscillations and" + }, + { + "start": 2814.0, + "text": "it's just another thing that evolution" + }, + { + "start": 2815.599, + "text": "could exploit. So I think about the you" + }, + { + "start": 2817.52, + "text": "know very this probably happened very" + }, + { + "start": 2819.359, + "text": "early in in evolution. So probably you" + }, + { + "start": 2821.76, + "text": "know imagine your simplest nervous" + }, + { + "start": 2823.28, + "text": "system all they're doing is responding" + }, + { + "start": 2824.64, + "text": "to the outside world like a thermostat" + }, + { + "start": 2826.4, + "text": "which means that the organization of the" + }, + { + "start": 2828.48, + "text": "nervous system is depends on the outside" + }, + { + "start": 2830.56, + "text": "world. Then you get a bunch of neurons" + }, + { + "start": 2832.96, + "text": "hooked together into a loop and now the" + }, + { + "start": 2834.48, + "text": "ner the the nervous system will begin" + }, + { + "start": 2836.24, + "text": "oscillating. So far all it's doing is" + }, + { + "start": 2838.319, + "text": "oscillating but right there there's an" + }, + { + "start": 2840.39, + "text": "but right there there's an" + }, + { + "start": 2840.4, + "text": "internal organization something separate" + }, + { + "start": 2842.24, + "text": "from the outside world that evolution" + }, + { + "start": 2844.88, + "text": "could now exploit push around to do more" + }, + { + "start": 2847.359, + "text": "complex stuff with. So I I have no doubt" + }, + { + "start": 2849.44, + "text": "that uh that um the um electric field" + }, + { + "start": 2852.24, + "text": "waves play a wide variety of roles in" + }, + { + "start": 2854.56, + "text": "biology not just in cognition." + }, + { + "start": 2861.04, + "text": ">> Hey uh thank you very much. I have a" + }, + { + "start": 2863.76, + "text": "question. I want to relate this uh to" + }, + { + "start": 2867.44, + "text": "physics. So in physics uh we have a" + }, + { + "start": 2871.04, + "text": "magnet mechanical waves and they can" + }, + { + "start": 2874.64, + "text": "form a very interesting behavior like uh" + }, + { + "start": 2878.0, + "text": "standing waves and uh and also uh so so" + }, + { + "start": 2882.64, + "text": "I was wondering what's the difference or" + }, + { + "start": 2885.359, + "text": "and dis uh uh similarity between these" + }, + { + "start": 2888.96, + "text": "waves in brain and uh and physical" + }, + { + "start": 2893.52, + "text": "physical waves. Yeah. Well, in the end" + }, + { + "start": 2897.92, + "text": "waves are are waves. I mean like they" + }, + { + "start": 2900.48, + "text": "they you see I mean you could do you" + }, + { + "start": 2902.88, + "text": "could do computation for example with" + }, + { + "start": 2904.559, + "text": "mechanical discs and wheels and also you" + }, + { + "start": 2907.68, + "text": "know um sound waves and and electrical" + }, + { + "start": 2910.16, + "text": "waves. So in terms of the physics of I'm" + }, + { + "start": 2912.559, + "text": "not sure what you mean by the question I" + }, + { + "start": 2914.16, + "text": "mean the same wave function describe" + }, + { + "start": 2917.119, + "text": "electrical waves as mechanical waves. So" + }, + { + "start": 2919.28, + "text": "I'm not um sure what what" + }, + { + "start": 2922.0, + "text": ">> yeah by the physics." + }, + { + "start": 2923.68, + "text": "So I I mean I mean exactly the the" + }, + { + "start": 2926.079, + "text": "mechanical waves because in in like if" + }, + { + "start": 2929.119, + "text": "you consider wave equation in physics" + }, + { + "start": 2932.079, + "text": "they they're not directional but uh in" + }, + { + "start": 2936.0, + "text": "neuron uh on under my understanding it" + }, + { + "start": 2939.76, + "text": "is directional. So" + }, + { + "start": 2940.96, + "text": ">> yeah yeah I see what you're saying. Yeah" + }, + { + "start": 2943.04, + "text": ">> I see what you're saying. Yeah." + }, + { + "start": 2944.47, + "text": "I see what you're saying. Yeah." + }, + { + "start": 2944.48, + "text": "Interesting. You know, in terms of brain" + }, + { + "start": 2946.64, + "text": "function, you really wouldn't want a lot" + }, + { + "start": 2948.16, + "text": "of standing waves in your brain because" + }, + { + "start": 2949.839, + "text": "what it means is whole networks are" + }, + { + "start": 2951.2, + "text": "going to be activated and deactivated" + }, + { + "start": 2952.64, + "text": "like in unison. What you want to see is" + }, + { + "start": 2955.04, + "text": "you want to see a lot of traveling" + }, + { + "start": 2956.24, + "text": "waves. Traveling waves are a great way" + }, + { + "start": 2957.92, + "text": "to control um the computation and the" + }, + { + "start": 2962.16, + "text": "traveling way. So that so the electrical" + }, + { + "start": 2964.96, + "text": "field influences I should maybe I should" + }, + { + "start": 2966.88, + "text": "have mentioned this earlier but" + }, + { + "start": 2967.599, + "text": "electrical field influence one thing one" + }, + { + "start": 2968.88, + "text": "thing they're very useful for is they" + }, + { + "start": 2970.64, + "text": "transmit influences around your cortex" + }, + { + "start": 2972.72, + "text": "5,000 times faster than spiking but" + }, + { + "start": 2975.76, + "text": "interestingly the they form these" + }, + { + "start": 2977.359, + "text": "traveling waves. So these traveling" + }, + { + "start": 2978.64, + "text": "waves the peaks of the traveling waves" + }, + { + "start": 2981.04, + "text": "you know when you have an oscillating" + }, + { + "start": 2982.16, + "text": "wave the peaks of them move around your" + }, + { + "start": 2983.92, + "text": "cortex and they generally follow the" + }, + { + "start": 2986.559, + "text": "anatomy of cortex and they generally" + }, + { + "start": 2988.24, + "text": "move at the speed of spiking and" + }, + { + "start": 2990.079, + "text": "synaptic transmission. So the peaks of" + }, + { + "start": 2992.24, + "text": "the waves are kind of moving around" + }, + { + "start": 2993.44, + "text": "following anatomy but then when" + }, + { + "start": 2995.119, + "text": "something changed in the resonance of" + }, + { + "start": 2996.4, + "text": "the system all the changes all the" + }, + { + "start": 2998.319, + "text": "influences like propagate" + }, + { + "start": 2999.839, + "text": "instantaneously in in in the surrounding" + }, + { + "start": 3002.24, + "text": "uh circuits. So for the so and traveling" + }, + { + "start": 3006.4, + "text": "waves are useful for things like um" + }, + { + "start": 3008.24, + "text": "again there I'm giving you biological" + }, + { + "start": 3009.839, + "text": "not physical explanations but traveling" + }, + { + "start": 3012.079, + "text": "are useful for things like if you want" + }, + { + "start": 3013.839, + "text": "to bake information into your brain" + }, + { + "start": 3015.28, + "text": "change connections in your brain there's" + }, + { + "start": 3016.72, + "text": "something called spike timing" + }, + { + "start": 3017.76, + "text": "independent plasticity. two neurons fire" + }, + { + "start": 3020.16, + "text": "within a short temporal window of one" + }, + { + "start": 3021.76, + "text": "another then they increase their" + }, + { + "start": 3024.16, + "text": "connectivity their syn their synapses" + }, + { + "start": 3026.16, + "text": "get stronger well traveling waves are a" + }, + { + "start": 3028.8, + "text": "great way to do that because what the" + }, + { + "start": 3029.92, + "text": "tra when many of these traveling waves" + }, + { + "start": 3031.28, + "text": "do as I mentioned is a lot of them are" + }, + { + "start": 3033.28, + "text": "rotating in fact the bulk of the waves" + }, + { + "start": 3035.44, + "text": "some of them move across your cortex but" + }, + { + "start": 3037.2, + "text": "a lot of them rotate and rotating waves" + }, + { + "start": 3039.68, + "text": "are a great way to induce synaptic" + }, + { + "start": 3041.359, + "text": "plasticity because you can move the" + }, + { + "start": 3043.2, + "text": "center of the rotation around the" + }, + { + "start": 3045.76, + "text": "surface of cortex and change that" + }, + { + "start": 3048.079, + "text": "precise" + }, + { + "start": 3049.52, + "text": "timing window for spike time dependent" + }, + { + "start": 3051.92, + "text": "plasticity. You can move that window" + }, + { + "start": 3053.839, + "text": "around in a parametric fashion. Did that" + }, + { + "start": 3056.4, + "text": "answer your question? I'm not a" + }, + { + "start": 3057.52, + "text": "physicist." + }, + { + "start": 3058.24, + "text": ">> Yeah, that this is very very very" + }, + { + "start": 3060.0, + "text": "interesting. Uh may I ask another" + }, + { + "start": 3062.96, + "text": "question also inspired by physics. So" + }, + { + "start": 3066.319, + "text": "yeah. So, so in in condes metaphysics uh" + }, + { + "start": 3071.119, + "text": "people studying uh studying uh large" + }, + { + "start": 3075.119, + "text": "scale uh oscillation in a system they" + }, + { + "start": 3078.079, + "text": "call it phon uh it's a imaginary" + }, + { + "start": 3081.28, + "text": "particle that uh uh basically when you" + }, + { + "start": 3085.52, + "text": "have a global oscillation global wave" + }, + { + "start": 3088.88, + "text": "you can transform it into wave spa uh" + }, + { + "start": 3092.319, + "text": "into frequency space and it become a" + }, + { + "start": 3095.28, + "text": "particle I wondering if neuroscience is" + }, + { + "start": 3098.16, + "text": "doing the same thing." + }, + { + "start": 3100.319, + "text": ">> Well, uh yes and no. There are like uh" + }, + { + "start": 3103.2, + "text": "theories of uh consciousness that" + }, + { + "start": 3104.96, + "text": "include like um quantum physics and and" + }, + { + "start": 3107.68, + "text": "uh and um I wouldn't say it's the" + }, + { + "start": 3110.079, + "text": "mainstream of neuroscience. Right now" + }, + { + "start": 3111.76, + "text": "we're me and uh uh several others are" + }, + { + "start": 3114.96, + "text": "are are trying to you know shift the" + }, + { + "start": 3117.68, + "text": "focus of neuroscience. not shift but um" + }, + { + "start": 3121.52, + "text": "um draw more attention to these um" + }, + { + "start": 3124.079, + "text": "non-connectionist mechanisms that that" + }, + { + "start": 3126.24, + "text": "are uh that we think play a major role" + }, + { + "start": 3128.16, + "text": "in uh brain function. And back when I" + }, + { + "start": 3130.079, + "text": "started selling this 20 years ago," + }, + { + "start": 3131.76, + "text": "people people a lot of people thought it" + }, + { + "start": 3134.16, + "text": "was uh you know um why would you want to" + }, + { + "start": 3136.4, + "text": "study waves when you could study" + }, + { + "start": 3137.68, + "text": "neurons? And now people are uh you know" + }, + { + "start": 3140.079, + "text": "generally people are coming around to" + }, + { + "start": 3141.599, + "text": "it. But we haven't gotten to the uh the" + }, + { + "start": 3144.16, + "text": "um you know the quantum collapse kind of" + }, + { + "start": 3146.319, + "text": "thing that although there is a quantum" + }, + { + "start": 3147.76, + "text": "theory of consciousness involving" + }, + { + "start": 3149.04, + "text": "microtubules you might want might want" + }, + { + "start": 3150.96, + "text": "to check out." + }, + { + "start": 3152.4, + "text": ">> Yeah. Thank you." + }, + { + "start": 3153.68, + "text": ">> Sure." + }, + { + "start": 3156.8, + "text": "Um would you mind calling on people?" + }, + { + "start": 3160.24, + "text": ">> Yeah, Chris." + }, + { + "start": 3163.2, + "text": ">> Uh yeah, thank you. This was this was a" + }, + { + "start": 3165.51, + "text": "Uh yeah, thank you. This was this was a" + }, + { + "start": 3165.52, + "text": "very nice talk. I appreciate it. Um" + }, + { + "start": 3170.0, + "text": "on this topic of" + }, + { + "start": 3173.44, + "text": "quantum effects," + }, + { + "start": 3177.28, + "text": "how reproducible" + }, + { + "start": 3180.64, + "text": "are the context changes" + }, + { + "start": 3183.839, + "text": "that you see with um sort of simple" + }, + { + "start": 3189.04, + "text": "experimentally controllable behaviors?" + }, + { + "start": 3192.4, + "text": "Uh, can you control an experiment well" + }, + { + "start": 3195.2, + "text": "enough to get the same wave patterns" + }, + { + "start": 3199.2, + "text": "moving in the same way across a single" + }, + { + "start": 3202.8, + "text": "brain?" + }, + { + "start": 3203.92, + "text": ">> You absolutely can. Yeah. I mean, I" + }, + { + "start": 3205.76, + "text": "wouldn't be able to show you this effect" + }, + { + "start": 3206.8, + "text": "if that wasn't true because all you" + }, + { + "start": 3208.4, + "text": "know, all the experimental work we do," + }, + { + "start": 3210.0, + "text": "it depends on reproducibility. We have" + }, + { + "start": 3211.599, + "text": "to see the same thing across multiple" + }, + { + "start": 3214.0, + "text": "renditions, multiple trials of the same" + }, + { + "start": 3216.079, + "text": "context. Otherwise, we wouldn't uh even" + }, + { + "start": 3218.48, + "text": "even see these effects. But you can in" + }, + { + "start": 3220.079, + "text": "fact do that. So you have the same" + }, + { + "start": 3221.92, + "text": "behavioral context. You see the same" + }, + { + "start": 3224.079, + "text": "wave pattern every time or a similar" + }, + { + "start": 3226.24, + "text": "wave pattern every time. That that it" + }, + { + "start": 3229.27, + "text": ". That that it" + }, + { + "start": 3229.28, + "text": "really would be it really couldn't work" + }, + { + "start": 3230.72, + "text": "any other way because you need this" + }, + { + "start": 3232.559, + "text": "negative cortical space negative um" + }, + { + "start": 3235.119, + "text": "space to be a computational dimension." + }, + { + "start": 3236.88, + "text": "You got to have cons consistency and we" + }, + { + "start": 3238.72, + "text": "do see that consistency that you see it" + }, + { + "start": 3241.119, + "text": "uh there's there's variability across" + }, + { + "start": 3243.04, + "text": "context but consistency within a" + }, + { + "start": 3244.72, + "text": "context." + }, + { + "start": 3245.75, + "text": "." + }, + { + "start": 3245.76, + "text": ">> Okay great. Um, so whenever um I am a at" + }, + { + "start": 3250.319, + "text": "least a part-time physicist," + }, + { + "start": 3253.119, + "text": "whenever a physicist hears context, the" + }, + { + "start": 3255.92, + "text": "natural question is, is the context" + }, + { + "start": 3259.04, + "text": "effect causal or non-causal?" + }, + { + "start": 3262.0, + "text": "And um they're nice statistical tests" + }, + { + "start": 3266.48, + "text": "for determining whether the context" + }, + { + "start": 3268.48, + "text": "effect is causal or non-causal. And" + }, + { + "start": 3270.48, + "text": "roughly speaking, if you can" + }, + { + "start": 3272.96, + "text": "reproducibly get context to interfere," + }, + { + "start": 3276.559, + "text": "you can see non-causal context effects" + }, + { + "start": 3279.44, + "text": "that express" + }, + { + "start": 3281.68, + "text": "by uh statistics" + }, + { + "start": 3284.48, + "text": "of some other observable or observables" + }, + { + "start": 3287.44, + "text": "that overlap between context" + }, + { + "start": 3290.16, + "text": ">> violating bells in equality. So you can" + }, + { + "start": 3292.4, + "text": "get very sensitive tests of" + }, + { + "start": 3297.119, + "text": ">> u the non causality of the context" + }, + { + "start": 3300.64, + "text": "effects and I just wonder if your data" + }, + { + "start": 3304.24, + "text": "are immunable to running that kind of" + }, + { + "start": 3306.88, + "text": "statistical test." + }, + { + "start": 3308.4, + "text": ">> Um yes we in fact do run those" + }, + { + "start": 3310.24, + "text": "contestical tests and we show the" + }, + { + "start": 3311.44, + "text": "causality going from the brain waves" + }, + { + "start": 3313.44, + "text": "down to the spiking neurons. So we've" + }, + { + "start": 3315.119, + "text": "done those analyses but also you can do" + }, + { + "start": 3317.119, + "text": "it experimentally too. So not not work" + }, + { + "start": 3319.359, + "text": "that I've done but work other people" + }, + { + "start": 3320.64, + "text": "have done. For example, you do things" + }, + { + "start": 3322.24, + "text": "like you record from inside the brain" + }, + { + "start": 3324.16, + "text": "and from outside the brain, you create a" + }, + { + "start": 3325.92, + "text": "fluctuating electric field, one that has" + }, + { + "start": 3328.96, + "text": "the same strength and same frequency" + }, + { + "start": 3330.64, + "text": "range as as happens inside the brain." + }, + { + "start": 3333.44, + "text": "And when you record inside the brain," + }, + { + "start": 3334.72, + "text": "what you find is all the neurons are are" + }, + { + "start": 3336.72, + "text": "are phase locked to to that fluctuating" + }, + { + "start": 3339.04, + "text": "electric field. So that's just one" + }, + { + "start": 3340.8, + "text": "example of many experiments that that's" + }, + { + "start": 3342.64, + "text": "a causal manipulation experimentally but" + }, + { + "start": 3344.88, + "text": "you can also do the math and show" + }, + { + "start": 3346.88, + "text": "causalities moving in in the electric" + }, + { + "start": 3349.68, + "text": "field the spiking direction too from the" + }, + { + "start": 3351.839, + "text": "existing data." + }, + { + "start": 3353.359, + "text": ">> Do you do you have any data that display" + }, + { + "start": 3356.0, + "text": "violations of Bell's inequality?" + }, + { + "start": 3359.359, + "text": ">> I'm not I'm not a physicist and I'm not" + }, + { + "start": 3361.2, + "text": "a quantum physicist. I know what Bell" + }, + { + "start": 3363.76, + "text": "I'm a I know what Bell's Bells is but" + }, + { + "start": 3366.24, + "text": "I'm not a expert in it. I'm I'm a" + }, + { + "start": 3368.4, + "text": "neuroscientist." + }, + { + "start": 3369.68, + "text": ">> Yeah, it' really be worth looking for" + }, + { + "start": 3371.839, + "text": "that." + }, + { + "start": 3375.52, + "text": "Experimental psychologists have been" + }, + { + "start": 3377.92, + "text": "able to demonstrate" + }, + { + "start": 3380.96, + "text": "um very good statistics for violations" + }, + { + "start": 3384.559, + "text": "of Bell's inequality on simple sort of" + }, + { + "start": 3388.079, + "text": "linguistic trial data. Uh so it's pretty" + }, + { + "start": 3391.92, + "text": "clear that that" + }, + { + "start": 3394.16, + "text": "brains are using" + }, + { + "start": 3397.68, + "text": "uh mutually interfering context to do" + }, + { + "start": 3402.0, + "text": "computation" + }, + { + "start": 3403.92, + "text": "uh even in civil kind of language games" + }, + { + "start": 3407.44, + "text": "and it would be very cool if you could" + }, + { + "start": 3409.359, + "text": "see it in the kind of data that you can" + }, + { + "start": 3411.599, + "text": "collect and it sounds like it would be" + }, + { + "start": 3413.359, + "text": "fairly straightforward. Well, I'll tell" + }, + { + "start": 3414.96, + "text": "you what. My my lab has a vast library," + }, + { + "start": 3417.76, + "text": "a large library of of" + }, + { + "start": 3419.04, + "text": "electrophysiological data. We've" + }, + { + "start": 3420.4, + "text": "collected spiking neurons, electric" + }, + { + "start": 3422.319, + "text": "fields, animals doing interesting" + }, + { + "start": 3424.319, + "text": "behaviors. I have a large library and we" + }, + { + "start": 3426.48, + "text": "love to share data. So, if um you have" + }, + { + "start": 3429.04, + "text": "an interest in in taking a look, any of" + }, + { + "start": 3431.28, + "text": "you, anybody, write me and I'm happy to" + }, + { + "start": 3434.0, + "text": "set up a collaboration. We're happy to" + }, + { + "start": 3435.76, + "text": "share our data with you. We do this all" + }, + { + "start": 3437.359, + "text": "the time." + }, + { + "start": 3439.52, + "text": ">> Well, thank you." + }, + { + "start": 3446.799, + "text": "send" + }, + { + "start": 3449.119, + "text": "um I have a a question about your" + }, + { + "start": 3451.76, + "text": "stencil idea. So the idea being the" + }, + { + "start": 3453.839, + "text": "electric fields as a act as a gating" + }, + { + "start": 3455.92, + "text": "mechanism uh on the neurop right so a" + }, + { + "start": 3459.52, + "text": "couple of questions on that uh so the" + }, + { + "start": 3462.0, + "text": "idea of stencil is something something" + }, + { + "start": 3463.92, + "text": "that's fixed or static right so how do" + }, + { + "start": 3465.68, + "text": "we imagine traveling waves implementing" + }, + { + "start": 3467.92, + "text": "that stencil the second question is who" + }, + { + "start": 3470.559, + "text": "is generating that uh stencil is it a" + }, + { + "start": 3472.96, + "text": "different set of neurons than the one" + }, + { + "start": 3475.44, + "text": "that's being constrained" + }, + { + "start": 3477.76, + "text": ">> so here's the so think of it um as the" + }, + { + "start": 3481.119, + "text": "as the stencil is not static stencils" + }, + { + "start": 3483.28, + "text": "but moving stencils. Okay, that that's" + }, + { + "start": 3484.799, + "text": "what the treers are. They're moving" + }, + { + "start": 3486.559, + "text": "stencils moving across your cortex. Same" + }, + { + "start": 3488.88, + "text": "concept as the stencils, just stencils," + }, + { + "start": 3490.799, + "text": "stencils in motion. Now, who is doing" + }, + { + "start": 3493.599, + "text": "the the um organizing? That's the" + }, + { + "start": 3496.4, + "text": "deepest question, isn't it? And you know" + }, + { + "start": 3499.04, + "text": "um the way I think about it is that you" + }, + { + "start": 3501.92, + "text": "don't don't need so all the information" + }, + { + "start": 3504.88, + "text": "you need for for to engage in complex" + }, + { + "start": 3508.079, + "text": "goal directed behavior intelligent" + }, + { + "start": 3510.64, + "text": "behavior is baked into your brain's" + }, + { + "start": 3512.319, + "text": "connections and the way I think about it" + }, + { + "start": 3514.319, + "text": "is that when neurons start spiking they" + }, + { + "start": 3516.48, + "text": "express that information in the wave" + }, + { + "start": 3518.0, + "text": "patterns then those wave patterns that" + }, + { + "start": 3520.319, + "text": "are based on the information about goals" + }, + { + "start": 3522.72, + "text": "you know your desires your plans baked" + }, + { + "start": 3525.52, + "text": "into your brain they create a wave" + }, + { + "start": 3527.04, + "text": "pattern that reflects that stored" + }, + { + "start": 3528.48, + "text": "information and input from the outside" + }, + { + "start": 3530.72, + "text": "world. Then those wave patterns come" + }, + { + "start": 3532.88, + "text": "together and they create a new wave" + }, + { + "start": 3534.319, + "text": "pattern in a computationally principled" + }, + { + "start": 3536.48, + "text": "way that's dependent on that on that the" + }, + { + "start": 3539.28, + "text": "initial wave patterns and that produces" + }, + { + "start": 3540.799, + "text": "a new pattern of thoughts and they could" + }, + { + "start": 3542.96, + "text": "turn around and then by influencing" + }, + { + "start": 3544.799, + "text": "spiking bake information um back into" + }, + { + "start": 3547.68, + "text": "your brain again. So the way I think" + }, + { + "start": 3549.44, + "text": "about this is that you don't need a" + }, + { + "start": 3551.2, + "text": "homunculus a little person in your brain" + }, + { + "start": 3553.2, + "text": "interpreting what's going on. You don't" + }, + { + "start": 3555.2, + "text": "need a you know neuroscientists like me" + }, + { + "start": 3557.76, + "text": "we we they we use down we use decoders" + }, + { + "start": 3560.319, + "text": "all the time on our neural activity can" + }, + { + "start": 3562.96, + "text": "I decode information from this activity" + }, + { + "start": 3565.44, + "text": "and that's a very useful tool but some" + }, + { + "start": 3567.92, + "text": "neuroscientists um there's this tacid" + }, + { + "start": 3570.48, + "text": "assumption that something must be" + }, + { + "start": 3572.0, + "text": "decoding activity well the way I think" + }, + { + "start": 3574.559, + "text": "about it these wave patterns producing" + }, + { + "start": 3576.319, + "text": "new wave patterns are patterns of brain" + }, + { + "start": 3578.72, + "text": "excitation producing new patterns in a" + }, + { + "start": 3580.88, + "text": "computationally principled way and you" + }, + { + "start": 3583.44, + "text": "don't need a homunculus. You don't need" + }, + { + "start": 3585.44, + "text": "a downstream decoder. It's just wave" + }, + { + "start": 3587.2, + "text": "patterns producing wave patterns based" + }, + { + "start": 3588.88, + "text": "on the um on the um knowledge your brain" + }, + { + "start": 3592.0, + "text": "already has baked into it. So that's the" + }, + { + "start": 3594.48, + "text": "way I think about the control happens." + }, + { + "start": 3596.0, + "text": "Control happens because your brain has" + }, + { + "start": 3597.68, + "text": "the um information needed to exert this" + }, + { + "start": 3600.24, + "text": "control and the wave patterns create" + }, + { + "start": 3601.599, + "text": "those control because it's based on that" + }, + { + "start": 3603.2, + "text": "information stored in your brain." + }, + { + "start": 3606.559, + "text": "That's all I got for for consciousness." + }, + { + "start": 3611.68, + "text": ">> Thank you. Um I have a question about" + }, + { + "start": 3614.64, + "text": "that. Um you're talking about" + }, + { + "start": 3616.799, + "text": "consciousness but what about memory?" + }, + { + "start": 3620.319, + "text": ">> Is wave as wave contribute to memory to" + }, + { + "start": 3625.04, + "text": "storing or retrieving memory? Well," + }, + { + "start": 3627.68, + "text": "certainly I mean this when those" + }, + { + "start": 3630.24, + "text": "information is encoded memories are" + }, + { + "start": 3632.64, + "text": "encoded in the connections in your brain" + }, + { + "start": 3634.64, + "text": "and the synaptic weights much like AI" + }, + { + "start": 3636.96, + "text": "and connectors themselves probably and" + }, + { + "start": 3639.92, + "text": "when that information gets expressed by" + }, + { + "start": 3642.079, + "text": "spiking it produces those wave patterns" + }, + { + "start": 3644.0, + "text": "and that that wave pattern is now the" + }, + { + "start": 3645.839, + "text": "memory that you're now thinking about" + }, + { + "start": 3647.599, + "text": "holding in your mind holding your" + }, + { + "start": 3649.76, + "text": "conscious of. But then when they create" + }, + { + "start": 3652.319, + "text": "new wave patterns because the wave" + }, + { + "start": 3654.16, + "text": "patterns have a downward influence on" + }, + { + "start": 3655.68, + "text": "spiking and spiking changes the" + }, + { + "start": 3657.92, + "text": "connections of the brain they can now" + }, + { + "start": 3659.2, + "text": "exer um store new memories in your" + }, + { + "start": 3661.359, + "text": "brain." + }, + { + "start": 3663.44, + "text": ">> Okay. So what kind what kind of speed I" + }, + { + "start": 3666.4, + "text": "can um uh expect from that kind of um" + }, + { + "start": 3670.88, + "text": "mechanism of wave mechanism" + }, + { + "start": 3673.28, + "text": ">> speed of encoding information of" + }, + { + "start": 3675.839, + "text": ">> encoding driving." + }, + { + "start": 3677.589, + "text": "encoding driving." + }, + { + "start": 3677.599, + "text": ">> Yeah. Well, it's the same speed as the" + }, + { + "start": 3679.349, + "text": "Yeah. Well, it's the same speed as the" + }, + { + "start": 3679.359, + "text": "speed as spiking. All it is is another" + }, + { + "start": 3681.119, + "text": "level of organization on top of the way" + }, + { + "start": 3682.799, + "text": "we traditionally thought about memories" + }, + { + "start": 3685.2, + "text": "in terms of being expressed by spiking" + }, + { + "start": 3687.119, + "text": "and induced by spiking. So, it's the" + }, + { + "start": 3689.28, + "text": "same dynamics. It's same time course," + }, + { + "start": 3690.96, + "text": "same everything. It's just how the" + }, + { + "start": 3692.39, + "text": "everything. It's just how the" + }, + { + "start": 3692.4, + "text": "information is expressed at a higher" + }, + { + "start": 3693.76, + "text": "level." + }, + { + "start": 3695.28, + "text": ">> Right? I'm trying to think about the the" + }, + { + "start": 3697.92, + "text": "experiment of reacting to a surprise or" + }, + { + "start": 3701.839, + "text": "or break pressing the brakes on the car." + }, + { + "start": 3705.44, + "text": "uh um" + }, + { + "start": 3706.799, + "text": ">> if you need to make a decision, see" + }, + { + "start": 3710.079, + "text": "something and press the brakes, that's" + }, + { + "start": 3713.28, + "text": "couple of milliseconds and and to do" + }, + { + "start": 3716.079, + "text": "that what I understand you need pretty" + }, + { + "start": 3719.119, + "text": "much a huge amount of speed in terms of" + }, + { + "start": 3722.24, + "text": "the system." + }, + { + "start": 3723.359, + "text": ">> Yep." + }, + { + "start": 3724.64, + "text": ">> And I I I don't know how if it's" + }, + { + "start": 3727.589, + "text": "And I I I don't know how if it's" + }, + { + "start": 3727.599, + "text": "possible to create that kind of speed." + }, + { + "start": 3730.24, + "text": ">> Uh sure it I mean, it's it's more" + }, + { + "start": 3732.16, + "text": "possible to create it with waves than it" + }, + { + "start": 3733.359, + "text": "is with spiking alone because the" + }, + { + "start": 3735.04, + "text": "electrical field includes move around" + }, + { + "start": 3736.559, + "text": "your brain 5,000 times faster than" + }, + { + "start": 3738.4, + "text": "spiking. So, that produces a lot of uh" + }, + { + "start": 3740.72, + "text": "that's a lot of speed gain right there." + }, + { + "start": 3742.559, + "text": "But the other thing to um if we're" + }, + { + "start": 3744.48, + "text": "talking about consciousness, which I" + }, + { + "start": 3745.68, + "text": "think is how we began this this" + }, + { + "start": 3747.2, + "text": "question. Um first of all, when you put" + }, + { + "start": 3750.0, + "text": "your foot to break, that's an" + }, + { + "start": 3751.52, + "text": "unconscious thing. A lot of what your" + }, + { + "start": 3753.04, + "text": "brain does is unconscious. Okay?" + }, + { + "start": 3755.28, + "text": "Consciousness is often the story your" + }, + { + "start": 3756.88, + "text": "brain makes up to explain what it just" + }, + { + "start": 3758.64, + "text": "did. Consciousness is good for planning" + }, + { + "start": 3761.68, + "text": "behavior and for counter countermanding" + }, + { + "start": 3764.88, + "text": "something stupid you you were about to" + }, + { + "start": 3766.559, + "text": "do. That's pretty much it. It takes" + }, + { + "start": 3768.72, + "text": "about half a second for your conscious" + }, + { + "start": 3771.04, + "text": "for you to be consciously aware of the" + }, + { + "start": 3772.64, + "text": "outside world. Half a second. That's an" + }, + { + "start": 3774.799, + "text": "eternity. Everything you're consciously" + }, + { + "start": 3776.0, + "text": "aware of is already half a second in the" + }, + { + "start": 3777.839, + "text": "past. So a lot of the stuff your brain" + }, + { + "start": 3779.76, + "text": "is doing is unconscious. Lot a lot of" + }, + { + "start": 3782.0, + "text": "the decisions you're making are your" + }, + { + "start": 3784.319, + "text": "unconscious decision your brain is" + }, + { + "start": 3785.92, + "text": "making. And cautiousness is kind of the" + }, + { + "start": 3788.16, + "text": "it's kind of the apex of this control" + }, + { + "start": 3790.319, + "text": "system because it allows you to sit back" + }, + { + "start": 3792.64, + "text": "and deliberate and plan but but it's not" + }, + { + "start": 3795.2, + "text": "necessary for a lot of complex behavior." + }, + { + "start": 3797.839, + "text": ">> Right. Okay. Thank you." + }, + { + "start": 3800.48, + "text": ">> But I'm sorry I have to run. I have to" + }, + { + "start": 3801.829, + "text": "But I'm sorry I have to run. I have to" + }, + { + "start": 3801.839, + "text": "go to a faculty meeting. But uh it was a" + }, + { + "start": 3804.079, + "text": "great pleasure to talk to you guys. Um," + }, + { + "start": 3806.88, + "text": "thank you for the invitation." + } + ] +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/transcript_clean.txt b/conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/transcript_clean.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..fe82d307 --- /dev/null +++ b/conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/transcript_clean.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1737 @@ +um what I'll be talking about today, I'm +a neuroscientist at at MIT and our lab +has been um examining the role of +electric field effects in uh in in um +cognition and consciousness and it's +electric fields are something that's +been um it's a signal it's a mechanism +that's been underststudied in +neuroscience and we're trying to change +that. So let me dive right in. So I +think the the best way to tell you how +our think where our thinking about the +brain is right now is to tell you where +we came from. So I'm going to give you a +little bit of an historical overview of +our how our thinking in the brain has +changed in the past I don't know hundred +years and then you'll you'll you'll have +a better understanding of of where where +we why we're thinking the way we do now. +So sorry let me get my screen going. +There we go. What is thought? Well we +know thought is composed of neurons. +Neurons are brain cells. They connect to +one another at junctions, connections +called synapses. And they signal each +other by brief electrical impulses that +we call spikes. And I'll be referring to +spikes for the rest of my talk in +addition to electric field. But spikes +are the electrical impulses from +individual neurons like individual +voices in a large crowd. And the idea is +that the neurons signal one another by +by um sending these spikes along uh um +axons and dendrites. the connections and +across synapses and that's what's +illustrated here spiking activity the +brain signaling all taking place by +these spiking moving down the brain's +connections and the brains have a lot of +this stuff your cortex alone I'll be f +since I'm interested in cognition and +consciousness I'm uh going to focus +mainly on the cortex today the cortex +alone which is where a lot of the higher +thinking in your brain goes on your +cortex alone contains 20 billion neurons +and they form uh 10 to the 14 synaptic +connections. I don't know what number 10 +to the 14 is. Let's just call it a +gazillion. +And at first, like um before the mid +20th century, so late 1800s, early early +uh uh early 1900s, um neurons were +poorly understood and sometimes they +were regarded as like mere build +building blocks or scaffolding, +right? thought that that neurons were +like the the somehow the stuff that +constructs the brain, but they didn't +seem to have any distinct function. And +why is that? Well, you know, there's +limitations to technology. Until about +the 1950s, we didn't have the technology +to eased on the spikes from individual +neurons. And also, if you're going to +study something as complex as the brain, +you got to start somewhere. You don't +dive into the details immediately. You +build up from the details by starting +simple. And the simplest place to start +is the brain's gross anatomy. +But by the 1950s, we developed a +technology to study electrical spiking +of individual neurons. And a major +discovery was that neurons are not +bricks or scaffolding. They're little +information processing units. +And this is based on the Nobel prize the +the watershed was the Nobel Prize +winning work of Hub and Visel where +what's shown here is for example they +were recording from individual neurons +in the visual cortex which is at the +very back of your brain. It's sort of +the first v stage of visual processing +goes on in your cortex and they showed +the subject different stimuli different +pictures different features on on a +screen. In this case, this individual +neuron they're recording from happened +to give off spikes at the site of this +leftleaning line appearing at this +particular location on the screen. So +this neuron, this individual neuron is +like a geiger counter for this one +visual feature detecting that one visual +feature. And other neurons detect +detected other features like right +leaning lines or squares or colors. And +the idea was that other neurons spike at +different things. So they detect other +things. they're sending different +messages +and this led to the dominant model in +the late 20th century of of the brain +and that is connectionism. +Uh the cortex was thought to be wired +like a giant telegraph system that +combines signals. So the spikes travel +down these telegraph like wires and +neurons signal one another. These little +information processing units signal one +another like a giant telegraph system. +And this is captured here. If I get this +right, here's here's the primary visual +cortex at the back of the brain. And +here's the um edge detectors like I +showed you earlier at this first stage +of visual processing. There's ner here's +a visual scene here of these this kind +of bent paper clip. And the idea was +that individual neurons back in primary +visual cortex detect different features +of this uh scene. In this case, the +simplest case is the simple line +segments of different orientations. +And then those edge detectors combine to +a second level of processing where they +combine their activity to detectors of +longer edges. +And then those longer edge detectors +combine their signaling and you get +corner detectors. +Then you combine more and more and +eventually you get neurons that are that +are only spike the whole images or whole +things like faces or or hands and stuff +stuff like that. And because there's 20 +billion neurons in your cortex, the idea +was that if you combine combine, combine +enough, you eventually get neurons and +circuits specialized for peace, love, +and understanding. That's the way we +thought about the brain in the 20th +century. This this connectionism and +this combining of signals into higher +levels of specialization and complexity. +And this may be familiar to you because +this is how AI kind of works. Large +language models are trained on large +data sets and they adjust their +connections, their associations to +capture statistical patterns in the +data. This is where AI got this idea +from from the from how we thought the +brain worked. +But starting about the um turn of this +century, a discovery challenged +connectionism. The discovery of +multifunctional neurons. These neurons +rather than being selective for one +thing indicated by these single colors +here, these neurons in cortex, they +combined different features in seemingly +ways that didn't make sense from a from +a neuron having a single function. Their +spiking of these neurons reflected +complex nonlinear combinations of +different things in different +situations. +Okay, as a result, these neurons were +multifunctional. They didn't just do one +thing and send one message. They sent +different message in different +And what that means is that cortex is a +web of overlapping multifunctional +networks that constantly interact. Not a +collection of specialized parts like we +thought or specialized circuits. So the +cortex didn't seem to be specialized +like this but we like we thought the +20th century. It was more like this. a +collection of overlapping networks or +individual neurons participate in +multiple different networks and they +change their network participation in +different situations. +Now I'm just for a moment I'm going to +take a little bit of a detour here and +explain to you a little bit about the +property of mix activity because it +really is key. Your cortex is full of +these neurons and they form a core +computational strategy that of your +cortex. +So here's an example of mixed +selectivity neurons. First, we'll start +with a 20th century model, the +specialized neurons. And here's a simple +task. You have the subject. In our case, +we use non-human primates, monkeys. We +have the subject. I hope you guys can +see my cursor. Can you give me a thumbs +up if you can? Good. Um, in this simple +task, the animal sees two objects in a +row. This case, a butterfly and a and a +um and a um padlock. Then after a short +memory delay, they're given three +pictures sim three objects +simultaneously and they have to +demonstrate their memory for the order. +These two pictures are in their order by +choosing them in in sequence. So first +choose the butterfly, then choose the +e the butterfly, then choose the +padlock. That's uh that's because that's +what the the animal just saw. Now +according to the 20th century model, +what should happen is you should find +some neurons that are selective. They +spike selectively to different objects. +So here's a neuron that spikes the most +to the padlock and the least to the this +is neural activity spiking activity on +the x- axis time on the x- axis. The +gray is when you're presenting these +objects. And according to 20th century +model, you have a neuron. This is a +single neuron here that responds most to +the padlock responds um spikes at a +medium level to the flower and the least +to the butterfly. And this neuron will +always give the same message every time +it sees a butterfly or a padlock or a +flower. Never changes. And you might +find some other neurons that just keep +track of the order of the objects. +They're pure some neurons that will +respond more when things appear first +and less when things appear second. +Other neurons that do the opposite. +That's what the 20th century model +predicted. We did this experiment and +what we found instead was these mixed +selectivity multifunctional neurons. +Many experiments have been done since in +the past 20 years or so. And what you +find is you find neurons are +multipplexing combinations of factors. +So this neuron we I've illustrated here +is responding most to the padlock and +least to the butterfly. Most spikes to +the padlock and least spikes to the +butterfly when the but when when those +objects appear first. But when when +those objects appear second, they show +different patterns of spiking. Now this +neuron is spiking most to the butterfly +and least to the padlock. And you see +different combinations of these factors, +these neurons seemingly giving different +messages in diff in different contexts. +And because they spike at different +objects in different orders, different +contexts, these neurons are doing this +multipplexing of different factors. And +it this gives them flexibility. It means +they're spiking is context dependent. +These neurons are doing different +functions in different contexts. And if +you had one word to describe cognition, +it would be context dependent behavior. +flexibility. Our brains don't do the +same thing every time to the same input. +We're not like thermostats. We behave +differently in restaurants than we might +at a picnic. We we we we u behave +differently when we're sitting down to a +lecture versus a concert hall. Our our +behavior is all context dependent. And +that's what cognition is all about. And +these neurons seem to be the embodiment +of that cognitive flexibility, that +context dependent behavior of cognition. +And this skin this makes them +multifunctional. And what my colleagues +Madi Regati and Safano Fusi did using a +data collected by Melissa Warden who's +in my laboratory is they built +computational models showing this mixed +selectivity property is critical for +cognition. It gives the brain more +computational horsepower. They form a +nonlinear highdimensional computational +space that allows the brain to solve +more complex problems. And their +flexibility allows the brain to learn +things really quickly. And they increase +the storage capacity of the brain +because rather than all your memories +and knowledge being stored in a few +specialized neurons, they're distributed +across many multifunctional neurons +which makes the brain pretty much +capacity unlimited. +But this leads us to our biggest +challenge. How does the brain control +such a complex system with overlapping +networks and these multifunctional mix +selectivity neurons that change their +membership in different networks +depending on the situation at hand? How +can the brain do that? And this is a +challenge because we are again our +brains don't just respond to inputs to +the out from the outside world. We have +control over our own brains. We take +charge of our own thoughts. We don't +don't just react to inputs like a +thermostat or like AI does. by way +that's what AI does. AI just responds to +inputs. It has no internal mild internal +monologue like we do. We act differently +depending on the situation. This is the +context dependent behavior I was just +telling you about. And we make goals and +set plans. I can choose what goal I want +to reach in the future and make plans to +get there and then ignore things in the +outside world that count that that +counteract that plan in order to get to +my goal. And we do this flexibly to +navigate a fast-paced world. +It seems impossibly complex to build a +control system that works by +connectionism. Connectionism may work +fine for storing information in the +brain, for baking information into the +brain, but in order to do all this +but in order to do all this +computation allows us to take control of +our own thoughts. How does that work if +the brain only works by connections, +right? It would require on the-ly +subsecond control of gazillions of +connections, gazillions of synapses +between a gazillion neurons. And that +just seems computationally intractable. +So what's the solution? A number of us +including our laboratory have come to +the conclusion that that the electric +fields are the solution to this problem. +What we call brain waves. Brain waves +are rhythmic fluctuations in the +electric field surrounding neurons. When +neurons spike, of course, they're +existing in this electrical environment. +When they spike, they cause ripples in +the electrical fields around them. and +you get enough spiking, you get enough +ripples in the rhythmic fluctuations in +the electric fields and they turn around +and they influence the spiking. A lot of +you may be familiar with with brain +waves. There's here's a recording here +on the left is a cartoon showing EEG +scalp recordings from the human scalp. +And you get you get a range of fre the +squiggly lines you see on an EEG reflect +a summation of of um a variet a wide +band of of of of rhythmic oscillations +in the brain and they're grouped into +frequency bands loosely associated with +different behavioral cognitive states. +So when your brain is giving high +frequencies like 30 hertz and above +gamma means you're awake and alert. Next +down beta I'll talk about beta. This is +when your mind is concentrating. when +your brain is concentrating. I'll talk +about that in a moment. And also alpha. +And then you get down to lower +frequencies and now you're more relaxed. +Eventually you get to delta low +frequencies and that's when you're +sleeping or anesthetize, which I'll also +show you in a minute. So we know that +these these um oscillations, these +electric field oscillations, brain waves +correlate pretty well with cognitive +state and consciousness. +And they were the first electrical +signal measured from the brain before we +could had the technology record +individual neurons. +But when the focus in the mid in the in +uh mid 20th century shifted to neurons +and connectism, brain waves were +dismissed as non-functional. Kind of +like the humming of a car engine. They +don't make the engine run. These these +electrical oscillations, they don't make +the brain run. There is a byproduct of +of the of the um of the brain running. +Now um first of all anybody who +understands basic electromagnetic theory +knows that can't be true. If the neurons +exist in this electrical environment and +their spiking is changing that +electrical environment it's going to +have an influence on on um sp on on +spiking. But also I'm here to say that +we need to banish the word epiphenomenon +from neuroscience specifically in +science in general because whenever I +hear the word epiphenomenon that's what +people said about this mean by +non-functional. Brain waves are +epifenomenal. When I hear the word +epiphen whenever someone says +epiphenomenon I hear doesn't fit my +omenon I hear doesn't fit my +theory. Okay? You know be and if your +theory is not explaining all the +is not explaining all the +observations then the your theory is +falling short. It's not that the +observations are irrelevant. Saying the +observations are things are +things are +non-functional or epifenomenal is an eg +crutch to dismiss ideas that don't fit +your hypothesis. So we got to banish +that from from from neuroscience +particularly because we've only +scratched the surface in how the brain +works. And again we now know this is not +true. One way we know this is not true +is work I've done uh in my my lab with +in collaboration with Emmy Brown's +laboratory where we're studying how +general anesthesia affects the brain. +Now it may be um a little disturbing you +know because anesthesia has been around +since I believe 1869. Etherdome over +here at MGH. I believe it's 1869 around +there. Um where the first demonstration +of med medical anesthesia was given. Um +there's been this no doctors for all +this time doctors have really not known +why anesthesia makes you unconscious. +They just know it works. It's like a lot +of things in medicine. It works. We +don't know why. So we use it. And it was +thought that anesthesia just kind of +shut off your cortex. May just zero out +your cortex. Hit the off button at your +cortex. And we found in starting these +studies about 10 years ago, this is +absolutely not true. What general +anesthesia does, it doesn't turn off +your cortex. It it dramatically alters +the brain wave dynamics. So here's a +recording of what's called local field +potentials. These are essentially +electric field recordings from inside +the the brain, inside the skull. And +that's we're seeing these colored these +are uh four different areas of the +cortex. These two areas in the top are +the frontal cortex, the front of your +brain, the executive part of your brain. +This is the parietal cortex in the +middle of your cortex and back here STG +is is primary auditory cortex. So +sensory cortex. So we're we're +bracketing sensory to frontal cortex +here. And these are electric field +recordings on the top and the bottom are +the spikes of individual neurons +recorded from those same electrodes. And +what you see in the conscious awake +state is a lot of high frequency +chatter. A lot of stuff is going on. +There's a lot of uh waves superimposed +on top of waves as all these waves do +different things. So you see a lot of +high frequency low amplitude chatter and +a lot of spiking going on. It's very +very very busy and complicated complex. +Then once we anesthetize the animal with +a commonly used anesthetic called +propall we then find that that this +shifts the brain to lower frequency a +lower frequency band to to to 30 hertz +and to mainly 20 hertz and below mainly +centered around delta one time a second. +So your brain shifts to these low +frequency oscillations. You can see +here, here's the high frequency chatter +when you're conscious. Now the the +electric fields are now doing this slow +frequency almost like a slowwave sleep +kind of thing. And the spiking activity +in different parts of cortex are now +lining up to these slowwave dynamics. +They were lined up to the high frequency +stuff here. We just couldn't sort them +out at least at first glance because +there's a lot of fre lower and higher +frequencies embedded in one another +harmonizing one another in the conscious +situation. But now that most of the +frequencies have been replaced by slow +frequencies, we can see it effect +, we can see it effect +spiking activity from individual neurons +strongly phase locks to different um +parts of of these low frequency waves. +And the other thing anesthesia does is +it seems to scramble the alignment of +the brain waves. Okay. So before in in +the awake state all these brain waves +are highly synchronous and the peaks +tend to line up one another because your +your brains your cortex is talking to +one another and when peaks of um of +waves mean then the the is a highly +excitable state and troughs are are low +energy states. So that's how cortical +communication works. When when waves are +in sync with one another, the neurons +are excitable at the same time. And then +when they're and then they're in low +energy states at the same time. So they +can talk to one another because they're +they're in high energy states, their +high energy states are synchronous. But +after anesthesia, these waves become +misaligned. They become almost 180 +degrees out of phase of one another. So +now when one set of neurons is in +excitable state, another set of neurons +is a low energy state. And you're +essentially fragmenting cortex and +breaking apart communication. And you +can see that here. Here is the spiking +activity from different areas. And +within an area, the spikes line up, but +you see the spikes are now misaligned +across the different cortical areas. So +that's what anesthesia does to your +brain. It doesn't shut off your cortex. +It misaligned and fragments the uh the +the brain waves. +Now, we did this first study. We did +this with propall one common anesthetic. +We've since then branched off of +different anesthetics because medical um +practice uses a variety of different +anesthetics. So we did too. And what we +found is something kind of I think is +kind of remarkable. We're finding a +universal signature of unconsciousness. +We saw these same effects with +anesthetic doses of three different +drugs that have different molecular +actions. Propol, which I just told you +about, ketamine, anesthetic doses of +ketamine and dexatonine. All these +things make you unconscious and they all +act on different molecular receptors in +different systems in your brain, +different cells in your brain, but they +cells in your brain, but they +all do the same thing to the brain +waves. Now, if you think about that, +that means we're seeing a convergent +level effect at the brain wave level +that can't be seen at the more +reductionist level. So, to my +reductionistic colleagues who say, you +ic colleagues who say, you +know, this brain wave stuff is just a +humming of the car engine, we can +explain how all these different +anesthetics um have the same effect +making you unconscious. And this in +principle cannot be explained on the +reductionistic level. So a strong +argument for function. And the other we +know we also know from a large body of +work is that these brain waves have a +direct influence on on spiking activity +in cortex and in fact all over your +brain not just cortex. So if this buoy +here is a spike in in your uh in the in +your cortex, the spiking activity rolls +the waves and the waves begin to knock +the buoy up and down. This is it's a +two-way street. is birectional. It's +inevitable because of basic +electromagnetic theory. And so brain +waves are made of the same stuff, +spikes, changes in voltage levels, just +on a longer time scarger spatial and +longer time scale. And that means they +exert a strong influence on when neurons +spiking cortex. It's kind of like +overlaying powerful radio waves onto a +telegraph system with the waves +modulating the impulses and wires. I +know I'm probably speaking on a very +elemental level to this particular +group, but to a lot of people who +haven't thought about these waves +before, this kind of stuff is uh can be +new to them. So, here's a crowd here +doing the wave. You see the the wave is +moving from right to left across the +screen. What your brain does is this +too. If these pe individual people in +the crowd are individual neurons, what +we see all over cortex, in fact all over +the brain, your cerebellum, subcortical +areas, even primitive brain structures +like your youractory bulb, you see the +ongo you see neurons spiking in +synchrony to peaks of ongoing uh uh +brain waves. You see that here? Here's +the brain waves going on. Your brain's +doing the wave here. And spikes tend to +occur. They phase lock to high energy +states of the waves. Okay? +Now for the last 10 years or so, our +laboratory has amassed quite a bit of +evidence showing that there's now the +know it's a mistake to to to assign +specific functions to individual +frequencies or frequency bands because +that's like saying a electrical impulse +has a certain function. It doesn't. It +depends on the circuit which is embedded +in. But we're finding a general divide +of function between higher frequencies +and mid mid to lower frequencies. And +what seems what what this evidence +suggests is that bottom up incoming +sensory information which is associated +with high energy states in your brain, +lots of spiking activity of neurons. +That's also associated with high +frequency brain waves that feed sensory +information forward from the back of +your brain where it's first processed +forward in your brain to your executive +parts of your brain, the front of your +brain. So that's so when you when you +see something, when you hear something, +when you're touched, there's a lot of +spiking going on your sensory cortex, +that's riding on top of these high +frequency gamma waves, 30 Hz and above +waves, feeding information forward in +waves in your cortex. At the same time, +in your cortex. At the same time, +your executive frontal cortex, which is +what takes charge of your brain, it's +feeding back signals in the opposite +direction that that provide that +executive control. And those signals are +at a lower to mid-frequency band, alpha, +beta, 10 to 25 hertz. And we've shown +that they have an inhibitory influence. +They suppress they reduce energy on the +on these excitatory gamma signals. Okay? +And that allows your brain to control +what you pay attention to. It allows +your brain to filter out the bulk of +sensory information. If your brain tried +to process all the sensory information +flooding into it right now, it would be +overwhelmed because your brain doesn't +have that capacity. And that's what you +see in autism, by the way. You see the +sensory overload. Well, these we've +amassed evidence showing these top down +these alpha beta control signals having +this inhibitory influence on these +excitatory signals feeding forward can +provide that filtering that prevents +sensory overload and allows attention +and executive control over the brain. +Now your cortex has multiple layers. +Your cortex is kind of like an onion. +And we know from the anatomy that the +superficial, the outer layers of cortex +are the ones that are supposed to feed +forward sensory information from the +back of the brain to the front of the +brain. And the deep layers are the ones +that feed back information anatomically. +We know for long time now, half a +century more, that the deep layers are +the ones feeding back information. So +these these rhythms should in fact map +onto these layers of cortex. Well, in +fact, they do, or else I probably +wouldn't be talking about it. We've mass +evidence and and developed a model where +we show that the feedback information +carried by alpha beta is feeding back +information in cortex and that has an +inhibitory influence on the gamma being +and spiking being fed forward, sensory +information being fed forward in the +superficial layers of cortex. +And I mentioned this because we've we +first developed this this uh found made +this discovery in the frontal cortex. +We've since since branched out and +studied all over cortex and we saw the +same motif gamma feed forward bottom up +sensory alpha beta um feedback ex +executive control we've seen the same +theme all over cortex 20 plus cortical +layers and in four different species and +when you see something this common and +this ubiquitous across cortex and across +species you know it's doing something +fundamental to cortical function +and here's the way it works. And here's +how can I can I ask a question? Uh so uh +in the previous slide or two slides ago +um I think the one before this uh yeah +so I think uh what you uh said here is +that the the waves and the spikes are +phase loft right? +>> Yeah. +>> Uh and the next slide uh you showed that +Uh and the next slide uh you showed that +uh uh they have this sort of uh +inhibitory effect. The waves have +inhibited effect on the spiking +ed effect on the spiking +activity. So that means that they cannot +be faced off like they there has to be +some sort of temporal separation between +the +>> well there's a lot of electrical there's +a lot of electrical influences going on +that that's that that's beyond spiking. +Okay spiking your average cortical +neuron only spikes about 10 to 15 hertz +and it gives little bursts of spiking +then it's quiet most time little burst +of spiking. So much of the activity +going on in your cortex is actually +electrical waves which are happening +100% of the time. So a lot of those +influences are happening independ +independent of spiking. +>> Thank you. +>> Can I ask another question? +Can I ask another question? +>> Uh I if if it's really important yes but +Uh I if if it's really important yes but +but if I keep getting interruptions then +we're +>> okay I will ask later. +>> Yeah please ask for later. Otherwise you +Yeah please ask for later. Otherwise you +know you when you give a talk somewhere +you time at a certain time and then if +you get interruptions then you go long +and if you don't and if you don't get +interruptions then you go short. So I'm +not if you have to something something +is really unclear please stop me. But +other than that, I I hope we can save +questions for the end, please. +But thank you for your interest. +Okay. So, here's how it works. Um, and +here's how we're going to how these this +this idea of these these gamma and beta +um influences can explain this prop. We +explain this property of big selectivity +I told you about earlier. We incorporate +this model called spatial computing. And +the idea is these alpha beta are having +this inhibitory influence on spiking +activity in cortex and they act as a +negative network space that the brain +uses as a coding dimension. So +essentially what gamma gamma and spiking +is kind of like spray paint spraying +energy into into your cortex from the +outside world sensory information. And +these alpha beta signals act like +stencils that prevent neurons from +spiking. And as a result, the spiking um +um being um associated with sensory +information can only be expressed in +certain parts of your cortex, not +everywhere. And your brain controls +these alpha beta um influences like +stencils to control where your brain +cortex can become activated and it uses +as a computational tool. So explain in +terms of mixed selectivity. Remember we +had these neurons that show this context +nonlinear +um context dependent spiking where a +neuron will show one pattern of +selectivity for these objects in one +context first and another um pattern of +selectivity to these objects spiking to +these objects in another context that +can be explained by these alpha beta +stencils. The idea is there's one alpha +beta stencil a pattern that corresponds +to the operation of being first and as a +result these neurons can't spike and +only these neurons can spike to the +butterfly if that's the thing that +happens to appear first. And then you +have another pattern that corresponds to +the operation the context of being +second. And now only these neurons can +respond. These neurons that are not +being inhibited only they can respond to +the padlock. and you just change the +different objects and you get different +patterns of neurons corresponding to the +different being allowed to respond to +the different objects in different +contexts and that's how you get this +context nonlinear dependent behavior. So +nonlinear dependent behavior. So +the alpha beta patterns control which +neurons can spike in the different +behavioral contexts +and this results in neurons with this +context dependent spiking and all the +computational benefits of mix +selectivity. +So why why so what this brings us to is +the idea that brain waves are ideal for +control and organization your cortex for +exerting this top down control over over +cortex wave functions are simple and +efficient imagine that I want to control +all these neurons in my brain in order +to do something like pay attention +process what a speaker is saying whatnot +how do you how do you do how do you do +that you can't do it by this +connectionism model as I mentioned +earlier because connectionism +would require that we shift around +connections constantly induce. We have +to change around all the connections in +order to get these context dependent +neurons. That seems computationally +intractable. However, wave functions are +simple and efficient. Rather than +controlling the individuals one by one, +you can use a wave to guide an entire +group. and try to if these if these uh +people in this crowd here are individual +neurons in my cortex I can produce this +wave pattern under the old hypothesis +the connectionism by trying to tell each +individual person what to do but if you +throw this wave function across the +crowd now you get a simple function that +controls the crowd and makes or +organized behavior +and sure enough your brain does this all +the time so these oscillations these +electrical waves I'm talking about +they're not just jumping up and down in +a like a like a standing wave, like a +jump rope. They form patterns that +travel and move across your cortex, much +like fans doing the wave in a stadium. +So, here's a recording from the frontal +cortex of a non-human primate. And what +it shows is an array of electrodes. The +arrays are separated by about a +millimeter or two. Each of the squares +is a different electrode in in the +frontal cortex of the animal. And what +the colors are are electric voltage +values relative to a reference +electrode. +And this this is raw unprocessed data. +And what you can see is the electrical +voltages are forming this rotating wave +that's rotating counterclockwise +across the array. +So much like much like the um a stadium +crowd can organize using waves, your +brain your brain is or organizing itself +using waves. These waves, these +oscillations aren't like pingpong balls +bouncing around your cortex randomly. +They're highly highly organized. And +whenever you see organization in the +brain, organization equals function. +Function invariably follows from +organization because or organ +organization means predictability. +means predictability. +And waves are also natural way produced +not just simple organization like this +to produce complex organization. And for +a metaphor for that, here's a a video of +grains of sand on a speaker. And when +you play different musical notes, you +get you get the the sand forms different +patterns. Now, obviously, I'm not +talking about shifting around neurons in +your cortex. But think of the sound +waves as electrical brain waves, +electrical field waves. I mean, like uh +they're the same physics, waves are +waves. And the sand instead is spiking +patterns of individual neurons. +Now, what your brain needs to do to +organize, it needs to somehow control +all these neurons. So, they're doing +something in an organized way. Imagine +trying to make these patterns, this +organization here. Imagine trying to +make this organization +by organizing the sand grain by grain. +It just be possibly complicated. But +organization is a natural outcome of the +influence of wave patterns. You have +wave patterns, they form, they create +interference patterns, and you get you +get this natural organization that falls +out of it. So this is basic physics that +evolution could exploit. +And for further um demonstration of this +of this for a demonstration of this +principle, here's a recent paper um we +published LA last year where we show a +direct connection between these +traveling waves are rotating around the +cortex and changing spiking patterns in +cortex. Now what I'm showing here is not +. Now what I'm showing here is not +electrical field waves anymore. Not I'm +not showing brain waves. I'm showing +patterns of neural spiking from 200 +individually recorded neurons of sorry +200 simultaneously recorded neurons but +200 individual neurons and what it shows +is something called subspace coding. Now +what subspace coding is it's a measure +of the var of shared variance of the +spiking patterns. Now if I record from +200 neurons we did record from 200 +neurons I can create a 200dimensional +space to explain how these neurons are +spiking. That's self-evident. It's +self-descriptive. 200 neurons. Each +neuron has his own vector. And the +spiking is the distance along the +vector. Bob's your uncle. You can do +that. But with subspace coding, we ask +the question, how many dimensions do I +actually need to explain what these 200 +neurons are doing? And it could be 2,000 +neurons. How many dimensions do I need +. How many dimensions do I need +to explain what these 200 neurons are +doing? And it turns out you can explain +them what these neurons are doing in +just three dimensions. Just three +dimensions. +And what that means is that spiking in +cortex is highly coordinated. It's not +like insects buzzing chaotically in the +in the night sky. Cortical spiking is +more like a murmmoration of birds. Birds +flocking in the sky together in a highly +organized fashion. +That's what spiking actually is in +cortex. Highly organized. Now you guys +no doubt get to where I'm going with +this. How do you produce this kind of +organization? Well, you can throw a wave +across it, right? That's what I've been +arguing. Well, that's exactly what we +found. We this we when we record from +the same electrodes that we record this +spiking activity showing the this highly +organized movement of spiking patterns, +we see traveling waves rotating around +the around the surface of cortex. So +traveling so spiking activity rotate +I'll explain what the rotation is in a +moment. These spiking patterns are +moving around this computational space +used to represent how spiking is +changing in cortex and we find a +correspondence of a wave moving across +the surface of cortex. Now brief +explanation this is a working memory +task and what we're looking at is the +memory delay the task where the where +the non-human primate has to hold one of +four objects in working memory in mind +over the short memory delay. And what +the four colors represent are the four +different objects the animal's holding +in mind. And you see separation between +the lines, which means that the spiking +patterns are conveying information about +which object the animal's holding in +working memory. Okay. Now, what's +happening at time zero in the middle of +the delay? We're distracting the animal. +We're showing we're trying to distract +the animal by showing it flashing a +picture on the screen trying to knock it +off its game. And that works about the +knocks the animal's performance down. +makes the animal forget about 10 to 15% +of the time. So, what's happening at +time zero? We're distracting the animal. +And what you see is the neurons are +being knocked out of where they should +be by the distraction +and then something in the brain is +gradually steering the neuron patterns +back to where they were before. So, this +rotating pattern here is a recovery from +the distraction. +And we see these rotating. So these +rotating waves in cortex are we think +are are producing you see a direct +correspondence producing this recovery +from distraction. +Now let me emphasize here that what +we're seeing here is a is a we're +mapping a mathematical construction of +neural computation that in principle +doesn't have to have any relationship +whatsoever to anything happening on the +mapped on the surface of your cortex. +But it does. we'd see a correspondence +between a mathematical construction of +neural spiking and and a physical +movement of waves across the surface of +cortex. And what that suggests to me is +somehow these waves are actually +involved in computation in neural +computation. +And sure enough, waves can perform +computation. You don't need digital +computers digit perform digital +ers digit perform digital +computation to do computation. +ation to do computation. +In fact, analog computation has been +around for thousands of years. Digital +is a bit of a an engineering +convenience, a bit of a detour. And what +you see here is I've illustrated analog +computing by showing addition and +subtraction using two sine waves. Here's +one wave in blue moving um left to +right. Another um um wave in this amber +orange like color moving uh right to +left. And the dotted line shows what +happens when you sum the two waves +together. And if you sum it just this +one, there's a space here on the on the +uh x axis and amplitude in the y +amplitude on the y- axis. If we sum +right here, we could see we're doing +addition subtraction just by the waves +coming together. Okay, so how the waves +interact models the equation. I've +modeled addition and subtraction by just +having two simple slide waves come +straight at one another. +And +all the values are car all the values I +might want to add and subtract are +carried in carried in different parts of +these two of this blue and amber +traveling wave. Right? So when the waves +interact the entire equation all the +addition subtraction across all these +different values all the addition +subtraction across all the space all +happens simultaneously you get pure +parallel computation inherently parallel +computation whereas digital is +inherently sequential. +And this is just one dimension and one +frequency. +Okay, your brain could do this across +multiple frequencies anywhere from one +hertz to 100 hertz and can do it in +three dimensions. That's a lot of space +to do a lot of complex computation. +And this isn't a conjecture. You could +do complex math with analog computation. +There's many modern examples of this, +but one example from hundred years ago +was MIT's own Vanir Bush, right across +the street from where I'm sitting right +now, built an analog differential +analyzer that solved 18 variable +differential equations using wheels and +discs. Wheels and discs and waves are +the same thing. And what he did is he +set up the wheels and disc to model +which differential equation he wants to +calculate. And then when he turns the +crank the whole equation gets to sol +solved in parallel. So the setup time +the main time here was setting up the +wheels and disc to model the equation. +But the computation takes place +instantaneously. In the brain we don't +have to set up wheels and disc. We can +just have waves are flexible. We we can +model equations on on the on the fly and +do parallel computing when waves come +together. And analog computing as I've +hinted at is a huge advantage over +digital. Analog computing is is a way +vastly more efficient. It's +informationrich. You know the real world +is made up of continuous signals. But if +you want to do digital computation then +you got you got to arbitrarily divide up +the world into ones and zeros which is +already highly inefficient. But again +the real advantage is that that analog +computation is purely parallel. When the +waves interact, all the variables +compute simultaneously. Digital +computation is sequential. That both +ation is sequential. That both +these things are a huge advantage over +over digital computation. +Think about AI. AI based on digital +computation and this connection as a +model consumes enormous amounts of +energy. They're building nuclear power +plants to to um to power AI. +They're building nuclear power plants to +power AI. And here's a graph showing the +total output of the of produced by the +state of Virginia alone is about a +quarter of its goes to these AI um +powered data centers which are causing +brownouts and neighborhoods around them +and stuff. By 2030 is projected as much +as half of the power that one that +Virginia produces will be devoted to AI +data centers. Okay. the projection AI +projection power demands outstrip the +energy the ability of the energy supply +to provide it in the future. +This is not the way biology works. +Biology does not solve problems by +throwing huge amounts of energy at it. A +pretty good definition of life is local +reverses in entropy using as little +energy as possible. +Evolution favors energy efficiency and +your far more capable brain runs on just +20 watts of power. The power of a dim +light bulb and your brain is more +powerful than any AI system out there. +So clearly our brains are doing +something different. And I think it's +not connectism and it's not not digital +logic like comput computations. It's +wave-based organization and wave-based +analog computation. So in summary, +brains we I think AI like connectionism +connectionism is not wrong and AI is not +wrong to use connectionism. It's a great +way to store information. Okay, great +way to store information in the long +in the long +term. But expressing information and +computing it may be a whole different +game especially for the high level +computation required by um you know +intelligence and cognition. +Waves operate on the right scale. You're +not don't have to worry about +individuals and those you're you're +you're you're operating on whole +sections or crowds of neurons +simultaneously by a wave function which +is a simple function and they're +mathematically easy way can gain control +over a complex system and can they can +perform highly efficient analog comp +So I want to leave you with the thought +that cognition and consciousness is not +digital or logic gate or connectionism. +It's analog +analog computation lets exist wave wave +patterns in your brain. These wave +patterns in the brain are patterns of +the brain are patterns of +excitation and inhibition. More energy +less energy. That is how your brain +works. That's how your brain works. +Okay. So what analog computation allows +is one pattern of excitation, one wave +pattern in your cortex to come together +and interact with another wave pattern +and generate a third wave pattern, a +brand new wave pattern in a +computationally principled predictable +way. And if it's predictable and +principle in that way, evolution could +take advantage of it. +Now consciousness virtually every +biological theory of consciousness +proposes that consciousness requires +somehow your cortex be unified create +this metaansemble meta network that +unifies your cortex to create the +unified experience of consciousness. +d experience of consciousness. +That's what consciousness is. It's a +unified experience. So somehow your your +brain has to do this but they're very +vague on how exactly your brain does +this. Well, I want to suggest that when +brain wave patterns produced by analog +computation, when wave patterns come +together and produce new wave patterns +using analog computation, when these +wave patterns become large and +organized, large and organized enough to +bind the cortex into a unified state, +the result is conscious experience. So, +I thank you for your attention and I'm +more than happy to take questions now. +Thank you. +>> +Who want to go first? +I have a I have a question +that was very interesting. Um, so you +mentioned that the uh waves are a +natural way to produce complex +organization. And so we've been seeing +traveling waves inside frog embryos, but +also between them. And I'm wondering if +these waves could play like a similar +similar role in the brain during +cognitive processing and maybe also do +some analog computation. And I'm +wondering what your opinion is like what +does this non-neural wave need to call +it cognitive or brainike? +>> Oh, I mean waves are are useful physics +that your brain could exploit for a wide +variety of reasons. And much like you're +seeing in the frog embryo, you're +developing retina has ways moving across +it. So before you can even see, there's +these ways that move across your retina +that allow the the retina to organize +itself into into regular regular +patterns. So yeah and I you know Michael +has shown that uh you know electric +fields play a role in in um in +development in uh in um so you know wave +I I wouldn't say waves become conscious +wave electrical +biological systems produce electrical +fields and your nervous nervous systems +will naturally produce oscillations and +waves because your nervous system is +composed of things called recurrent +connections. neurons loop back on +themselves like snakes eating their own +tail and this happens on a short in a +short distance and also will cross long +distance in your cortex. So your whole +cortex your whole nervous system is set +up to produce these oscillations and +it's just another thing that evolution +could exploit. So I think about the you +know very this probably happened very +early in in evolution. So probably you +know imagine your simplest nervous +system all they're doing is responding +to the outside world like a thermostat +which means that the organization of the +nervous system is depends on the outside +world. Then you get a bunch of neurons +hooked together into a loop and now the +ner the the nervous system will begin +oscillating. So far all it's doing is +oscillating but right there there's an +but right there there's an +internal organization something separate +from the outside world that evolution +could now exploit push around to do more +complex stuff with. So I I have no doubt +that uh that um the um electric field +waves play a wide variety of roles in +biology not just in cognition. +>> Hey uh thank you very much. I have a +question. I want to relate this uh to +physics. So in physics uh we have a +magnet mechanical waves and they can +form a very interesting behavior like uh +standing waves and uh and also uh so so +I was wondering what's the difference or +and dis uh uh similarity between these +waves in brain and uh and physical +physical waves. Yeah. Well, in the end +waves are are waves. I mean like they +they you see I mean you could do you +could do computation for example with +mechanical discs and wheels and also you +know um sound waves and and electrical +waves. So in terms of the physics of I'm +not sure what you mean by the question I +mean the same wave function describe +electrical waves as mechanical waves. So +I'm not um sure what what +>> yeah by the physics. +So I I mean I mean exactly the the +mechanical waves because in in like if +you consider wave equation in physics +they they're not directional but uh in +neuron uh on under my understanding it +is directional. So +>> yeah yeah I see what you're saying. Yeah +>> I see what you're saying. Yeah. +I see what you're saying. Yeah. +Interesting. You know, in terms of brain +function, you really wouldn't want a lot +of standing waves in your brain because +what it means is whole networks are +going to be activated and deactivated +like in unison. What you want to see is +you want to see a lot of traveling +waves. Traveling waves are a great way +to control um the computation and the +traveling way. So that so the electrical +field influences I should maybe I should +have mentioned this earlier but +electrical field influence one thing one +thing they're very useful for is they +transmit influences around your cortex +5,000 times faster than spiking but +interestingly the they form these +traveling waves. So these traveling +waves the peaks of the traveling waves +you know when you have an oscillating +wave the peaks of them move around your +cortex and they generally follow the +anatomy of cortex and they generally +move at the speed of spiking and +synaptic transmission. So the peaks of +the waves are kind of moving around +following anatomy but then when +something changed in the resonance of +the system all the changes all the +influences like propagate +instantaneously in in in the surrounding +uh circuits. So for the so and traveling +waves are useful for things like um +again there I'm giving you biological +not physical explanations but traveling +are useful for things like if you want +to bake information into your brain +change connections in your brain there's +something called spike timing +independent plasticity. two neurons fire +within a short temporal window of one +another then they increase their +connectivity their syn their synapses +get stronger well traveling waves are a +great way to do that because what the +tra when many of these traveling waves +do as I mentioned is a lot of them are +rotating in fact the bulk of the waves +some of them move across your cortex but +a lot of them rotate and rotating waves +are a great way to induce synaptic +plasticity because you can move the +center of the rotation around the +surface of cortex and change that +precise +timing window for spike time dependent +plasticity. You can move that window +around in a parametric fashion. Did that +answer your question? I'm not a +physicist. +>> Yeah, that this is very very very +interesting. Uh may I ask another +question also inspired by physics. So +yeah. So, so in in condes metaphysics uh +people studying uh studying uh large +scale uh oscillation in a system they +call it phon uh it's a imaginary +particle that uh uh basically when you +have a global oscillation global wave +you can transform it into wave spa uh +into frequency space and it become a +particle I wondering if neuroscience is +doing the same thing. +>> Well, uh yes and no. There are like uh +theories of uh consciousness that +include like um quantum physics and and +uh and um I wouldn't say it's the +mainstream of neuroscience. Right now +we're me and uh uh several others are +are are trying to you know shift the +focus of neuroscience. not shift but um +um draw more attention to these um +non-connectionist mechanisms that that +are uh that we think play a major role +in uh brain function. And back when I +started selling this 20 years ago, +people people a lot of people thought it +was uh you know um why would you want to +study waves when you could study +neurons? And now people are uh you know +generally people are coming around to +it. But we haven't gotten to the uh the +um you know the quantum collapse kind of +thing that although there is a quantum +theory of consciousness involving +microtubules you might want might want +to check out. +>> Yeah. Thank you. +>> Sure. +Um would you mind calling on people? +>> Yeah, Chris. +>> Uh yeah, thank you. This was this was a +Uh yeah, thank you. This was this was a +very nice talk. I appreciate it. Um +on this topic of +quantum effects, +how reproducible +are the context changes +that you see with um sort of simple +experimentally controllable behaviors? +Uh, can you control an experiment well +enough to get the same wave patterns +moving in the same way across a single +brain? +>> You absolutely can. Yeah. I mean, I +wouldn't be able to show you this effect +if that wasn't true because all you +know, all the experimental work we do, +it depends on reproducibility. We have +to see the same thing across multiple +renditions, multiple trials of the same +context. Otherwise, we wouldn't uh even +even see these effects. But you can in +fact do that. So you have the same +behavioral context. You see the same +wave pattern every time or a similar +wave pattern every time. That that it +. That that it +really would be it really couldn't work +any other way because you need this +negative cortical space negative um +space to be a computational dimension. +You got to have cons consistency and we +do see that consistency that you see it +uh there's there's variability across +context but consistency within a +context. +. +>> Okay great. Um, so whenever um I am a at +least a part-time physicist, +whenever a physicist hears context, the +natural question is, is the context +effect causal or non-causal? +And um they're nice statistical tests +for determining whether the context +effect is causal or non-causal. And +roughly speaking, if you can +reproducibly get context to interfere, +you can see non-causal context effects +that express +by uh statistics +of some other observable or observables +that overlap between context +>> violating bells in equality. So you can +get very sensitive tests of +>> u the non causality of the context +effects and I just wonder if your data +are immunable to running that kind of +statistical test. +>> Um yes we in fact do run those +contestical tests and we show the +causality going from the brain waves +down to the spiking neurons. So we've +done those analyses but also you can do +it experimentally too. So not not work +that I've done but work other people +have done. For example, you do things +like you record from inside the brain +and from outside the brain, you create a +fluctuating electric field, one that has +the same strength and same frequency +range as as happens inside the brain. +And when you record inside the brain, +what you find is all the neurons are are +are phase locked to to that fluctuating +electric field. So that's just one +example of many experiments that that's +a causal manipulation experimentally but +you can also do the math and show +causalities moving in in the electric +field the spiking direction too from the +existing data. +>> Do you do you have any data that display +violations of Bell's inequality? +>> I'm not I'm not a physicist and I'm not +a quantum physicist. I know what Bell +I'm a I know what Bell's Bells is but +I'm not a expert in it. I'm I'm a +neuroscientist. +>> Yeah, it' really be worth looking for +that. +Experimental psychologists have been +able to demonstrate +um very good statistics for violations +of Bell's inequality on simple sort of +linguistic trial data. Uh so it's pretty +clear that that +brains are using +uh mutually interfering context to do +computation +uh even in civil kind of language games +and it would be very cool if you could +see it in the kind of data that you can +collect and it sounds like it would be +fairly straightforward. Well, I'll tell +you what. My my lab has a vast library, +a large library of of +electrophysiological data. We've +collected spiking neurons, electric +fields, animals doing interesting +behaviors. I have a large library and we +love to share data. So, if um you have +an interest in in taking a look, any of +you, anybody, write me and I'm happy to +set up a collaboration. We're happy to +share our data with you. We do this all +the time. +>> Well, thank you. +send +um I have a a question about your +stencil idea. So the idea being the +electric fields as a act as a gating +mechanism uh on the neurop right so a +couple of questions on that uh so the +idea of stencil is something something +that's fixed or static right so how do +we imagine traveling waves implementing +that stencil the second question is who +is generating that uh stencil is it a +different set of neurons than the one +that's being constrained +>> so here's the so think of it um as the +as the stencil is not static stencils +but moving stencils. Okay, that that's +what the treers are. They're moving +stencils moving across your cortex. Same +concept as the stencils, just stencils, +stencils in motion. Now, who is doing +the the um organizing? That's the +deepest question, isn't it? And you know +um the way I think about it is that you +don't don't need so all the information +you need for for to engage in complex +goal directed behavior intelligent +behavior is baked into your brain's +connections and the way I think about it +is that when neurons start spiking they +express that information in the wave +patterns then those wave patterns that +are based on the information about goals +you know your desires your plans baked +into your brain they create a wave +pattern that reflects that stored +information and input from the outside +world. Then those wave patterns come +together and they create a new wave +pattern in a computationally principled +way that's dependent on that on that the +initial wave patterns and that produces +a new pattern of thoughts and they could +turn around and then by influencing +spiking bake information um back into +your brain again. So the way I think +about this is that you don't need a +homunculus a little person in your brain +interpreting what's going on. You don't +need a you know neuroscientists like me +we we they we use down we use decoders +all the time on our neural activity can +I decode information from this activity +and that's a very useful tool but some +neuroscientists um there's this tacid +assumption that something must be +decoding activity well the way I think +about it these wave patterns producing +new wave patterns are patterns of brain +excitation producing new patterns in a +computationally principled way and you +don't need a homunculus. You don't need +a downstream decoder. It's just wave +patterns producing wave patterns based +on the um on the um knowledge your brain +already has baked into it. So that's the +way I think about the control happens. +Control happens because your brain has +the um information needed to exert this +control and the wave patterns create +those control because it's based on that +information stored in your brain. +That's all I got for for consciousness. +>> Thank you. Um I have a question about +that. Um you're talking about +consciousness but what about memory? +>> Is wave as wave contribute to memory to +storing or retrieving memory? Well, +certainly I mean this when those +information is encoded memories are +encoded in the connections in your brain +and the synaptic weights much like AI +and connectors themselves probably and +when that information gets expressed by +spiking it produces those wave patterns +and that that wave pattern is now the +memory that you're now thinking about +holding in your mind holding your +conscious of. But then when they create +new wave patterns because the wave +patterns have a downward influence on +spiking and spiking changes the +connections of the brain they can now +exer um store new memories in your +brain. +>> Okay. So what kind what kind of speed I +can um uh expect from that kind of um +mechanism of wave mechanism +>> speed of encoding information of +>> encoding driving. +encoding driving. +>> Yeah. Well, it's the same speed as the +Yeah. Well, it's the same speed as the +speed as spiking. All it is is another +level of organization on top of the way +we traditionally thought about memories +in terms of being expressed by spiking +and induced by spiking. So, it's the +same dynamics. It's same time course, +same everything. It's just how the +everything. It's just how the +information is expressed at a higher +level. +>> Right? I'm trying to think about the the +experiment of reacting to a surprise or +or break pressing the brakes on the car. +uh um +>> if you need to make a decision, see +something and press the brakes, that's +couple of milliseconds and and to do +that what I understand you need pretty +much a huge amount of speed in terms of +the system. +>> Yep. +>> And I I I don't know how if it's +And I I I don't know how if it's +possible to create that kind of speed. +>> Uh sure it I mean, it's it's more +possible to create it with waves than it +is with spiking alone because the +electrical field includes move around +your brain 5,000 times faster than +spiking. So, that produces a lot of uh +that's a lot of speed gain right there. +But the other thing to um if we're +talking about consciousness, which I +think is how we began this this +question. Um first of all, when you put +your foot to break, that's an +unconscious thing. A lot of what your +brain does is unconscious. Okay? +Consciousness is often the story your +brain makes up to explain what it just +did. Consciousness is good for planning +behavior and for counter countermanding +something stupid you you were about to +do. That's pretty much it. It takes +about half a second for your conscious +for you to be consciously aware of the +outside world. Half a second. That's an +eternity. Everything you're consciously +aware of is already half a second in the +past. So a lot of the stuff your brain +is doing is unconscious. Lot a lot of +the decisions you're making are your +unconscious decision your brain is +making. And cautiousness is kind of the +it's kind of the apex of this control +system because it allows you to sit back +and deliberate and plan but but it's not +necessary for a lot of complex behavior. +>> Right. Okay. Thank you. +>> But I'm sorry I have to run. I have to +But I'm sorry I have to run. I have to +go to a faculty meeting. But uh it was a +great pleasure to talk to you guys. Um, +thank you for the invitation. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/video.log b/conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/video.log new file mode 100644 index 00000000..95a215cd --- /dev/null +++ b/conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/video.log @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +# yt-dlp log +# url: https://youtu.be/0BS-BzEFTXA +# output: conductor/tracks/video_analysis_neural_dynamics_miller_20260621/artifacts/video.mp4 +# returncode: 0 + +stdout: +[youtube] Extracting URL: https://youtu.be/0BS-BzEFTXA +[youtube] 0BS-BzEFTXA: Downloading webpage +[youtube] 0BS-BzEFTXA: Downloading android vr player API JSON +[info] 0BS-BzEFTXA: Downloading 1 format(s): 400+251 +[download] video.mp4.f400.mp4 +[download] video.mp4.f251.webm +[Merger] Merging formats into video.mp4 + +stderr: +WARNING: yt-dlp EJS not enabled; some formats may be missing.